Olive Tree Farming History
Olive pollen fossil; Mine deposit belonging to the Miocene Age (the fourth age of the third geological period, the age in which today's mammals developed), Eskihisar, Tinaz Coal Mine, Yatağan, Muğla.
According to the historian Fernand Braudel (1902-1985), the borders of the Mediterranean region are the borders where the wild olive tree (Olea Europaea L. Oleaster) spreads.
Today, approximately 95% of the olive tree existence in the world is in the Mediterranean region. This region, which is also called the Mediterranean basin, is the region of the earth with the most suitable ecological characteristics in terms of climate, geomorphology (surface science or geomorphology) and soil cover characteristics necessary for the life of the olive tree.
In the tropics and Southern Africa, Southern Asia, Eastern Australia, there are about forty other varieties of the wild olive tree, some of them very close relatives of the Mediterranean origin Olea Europaea L. Oleaster, but none of them domesticated by the peoples of those geographies.
Wild Olive Tree (Delice; Olea europea L. oleaster)
Historical evidence for the existence of a wild olive tree is based on findings from olive leaf fossils and archaeological olive pit fossils.
The olive pollen fossil of approximately 14.3 million years - at the earliest 11.5 and at the latest 14.3 million years - found in the fossil beds in the Yatağan district of Muğla is the oldest finding on the history of the deli olive to date.
According to the findings based on the fossil leaves unearthed in Mongardino, near the city of Bologna in the north of Italy, it was concluded that a wild olive tree existed in the nature of the Mediterranean basin one million years ago.
Excavations at the paleolithic (Old Stone Age) centers in Har Hanegev, Israel, date back to the 4th century BC. 45000 and BC. Remains of wild olive wood were found in the layers dated to 25000 BC.
Another piece of data we have is the 39,000-year-old olive leaf fossils unearthed during archaeological studies on Santorini Island in the Aegean Sea.
Fossilized 21 thousand-year-old olive pollen was found in Buldan Lake during the archaeological researches carried out in the Buldan district of Denizli in 2022 in our country.
In the archaeological researches carried out in the Sahara region in North Africa, it was found in the BC. Findings of 12,000 olive trees were found. In addition; Human figures with crowns made of olive branches were found among thousands of wall depictions dated to 4000 BC, found in 75 different places in the Tassili Najjer region, which is considered the place with the most "rock inscriptions" around the same point in the world.
According to the finds unearthed in Torre Canne, south of Bari, in Italy, the olive fruit was consumed as food by the people of this region 7000 years ago. However, it is difficult to say that this consumption was widespread at that time, because the wild olive tree named Olea europea L. oleaster has low yields, its grains are small, its oil content is less than its domesticated form, Olea europea L. sativa, and its oil is difficult to process and separate from its olive. Therefore, in those times, the consumption of wild olives pickled with salt and vinegar must have been more common than the consumption of olive oil, probably, even if the olive tasted bad.
Domestication of Wild Olive or Reclaimed Olive Tree (Olea europea L. sativa)
We can say that we have few documents on olive cultivation in the Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age, 2 million-12,000 BC). The writing of studies on agriculture increased after the Roman period. However, thanks to archeology, some of the practices related to olive farming in the periods before the Romans were revealed.
In the Neolithic Age (New or Neolithic Age, 9000-5500 BC) Around 8500 BC, peoples in Southwest Asia began tales of domesticating (improving) plants, beginning with wheat and peas, and then continuing with olives. Scientists think that this story, called the "Agricultural Revolution" or the "Neolithic Revolution", ended with the industrial revolution in the 19th century.
Olive tree breeding effort is considered as the second step of agricultural plant development. The early farmers did not have molecular genetic methods to domesticate plants or any existing breeding products to model them, their sole purpose was to have tasty food. Compared to cereals and legumes, the fault of the olive is that it does not produce a product for at least three years, and that it reaches yield in only ten years. For this reason, growing olives was only possible for peoples who were fully settled in village life. Another advantage of the olive tree was that, in addition to being able to be grown as a seed - albeit difficult - from its core, it could also be grown by making cuttings, so when they found or developed a fertile tree, they could be sure that all the offspring they produced/grafted from it would be exactly the same.
The domestication of fruit trees is a process that takes many years, so it is not the struggle of hunter-gatherer or immigrant peoples struggling to survive, but of peoples who have settled down and have reached a certain abundance. It requires initial investment, since the cultivated tree survives for a long time, it has economic and social importance in terms of owning the land and passing it on to future generations. When viewed from this angle; The history of olive farming culture is one of the important methods of examining and explaining the transformation stages of civilization. over olives; the story of the civilization we have created as humanity, in addition to the specialization, division of labor, hierarchy and economic elements created by humanity; The tools we produce, the technologies we develop, the developments in science, art and trade can be explained.
After it was understood that the wild olive, which is called “delice” (Olea europaea L. oleaster ) in today's Anatolia, could be improved by our ancestors -almost ten thousand years ago-, the olive tree in the Mediterranean Basin geography was preferred by the peoples who preferred to become a farmer by sedentary life. It became one of the factors that enabled it to replace the hunter-gatherer nomads who did not The economic wealth created by the crowded and active peoples, who started to settle in the coastal regions, gradually spread and dominated the inner regions. The interaction of these sedentary competitive peoples and migratory peoples continued for centuries. Olive cultivation culture played a dominant role for a long time in the process of reaching today's civilization from nomadism to settlement and then urbanization.
West Side of the Fertile Crescent
Although there is no complete consensus among archaeo-botanists, historians and archaeologists, there is a consensus that olive cultivation began at least seven thousand years ago in Anatolia, in the geography defined as the "Fertile Crescent".
B.C. Around 10,000 B.C., there was an abundance of wild grains and legumes on the part of the Fertile Crescent that marks the present-day Syria-Palestine region. People like sheep, goats, pigs etc. could hunt. All the animals we raise today were found in the wild in that area. They had enough resources at their disposal, the last glacial period was over, and the climatic conditions were suitable for sustaining life. It is believed that our ancestors began to gather near lakes, rivers, swamps. It is assumed that because of this favorable environment and conditions, hunter-gatherer human groups consciously decided to give up nomadism. In addition to this view; In regions where the climate is constantly suitable for agriculture, it is thought that the culture of raising domesticated animal herds, which is a culture of nomads, preferred settled life in these regions where they could feed the animals in their herds over time.
The hunter-gatherers who decided to settle down knew the plants well, that for thousands of years there had already been a culture of growing plants from seeds, in places where they passed through as nomads, they found the products that emerged from the seeds they had left the previous year. They had a plant growing history that they had formed by observing and experimenting over thousands of years, they were specialized in collecting plant species to be cultivated, they were aware of the seasonal cycles. They knew when the animals would migrate. Archaeologists and scientists believe that the hunter-gatherer group people who carved the flint of the Paleolithic Age were as intelligent and proven artisans as today's people. These groups, who knew how to use nature and gave up nomadism, started to live first in small villages and then in more sheltered settlements within a few thousand years, the number of children lost on their journeys decreased and then the population growth began.
There is evidence that the civilization that tamed the olive tree in its wild form was the Semitic people of Mesopotamia. Archaeological-botanical laboratory findings of the charcoal remains excavated by archaeologists from the Chalcolithic period (Copper Stone Age 5000-3000 BC) at the Tel Tsaf archaeological site in the Jordan Valley revealed that the remains belonged to an olive tree. Olives do not grow naturally in the Jordan Valley, the tree's presence outside its natural habitat is considered evidence of domestication, so it has been concluded that the residents here deliberately planted the tree about 7,000 years ago, which has been interpreted as the earliest evidence of olive domestication anywhere in the world. . Ancient stamps were also found in the same region, which are evidence of a hierarchical administrative system. Researchers have interpreted these findings unearthed at the Tel Tsaf archaeological site as the first steps in the formation of a complex multilevel society in which wealth as a whole, the farmer class and the clerk and merchant classes existed.
Olive oil residues were found in the analysis results of twenty of the historical artifacts unearthed during the main road works that started in 2011 in the En Zippori region in the north of Israel. Analysis of the samples taken, olive oil BC. It has been shown that it belongs to 5800 years.
From the Western Part of the Fertile Crescent to the Peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean
B.C. There is much archaeological evidence that olive cultivation and olive oil consumption began to spread westward from the eastern Mediterranean by the time 3000 BC. It is generally accepted that olive seedlings were brought to Egypt in the south direction by the Phoenicians and Semitic tribes, who are seafarers from the Middle East, and to the Aegean islands, primarily Crete and Cyprus, by sea in the west direction, and then olive cultivation became widespread in the Aegean coasts of Anatolia over time.
Researchers think that humans have been traveling in the Mediterranean for 8,000 years. From the end of the Paleolithic era, people knew how to craft shallow rafts or boats. Archaeologists have found the remains of an 8,300-year-old carved long log boat in England. Presumably, the Mediterranean was not a fearsome mystery to coastal peoples. Over time, they began to use the boats they made to navigate the coasts and sail to the seas. They managed to get from island to island. On the More Peninsula south of mainland Greece, tools made of obsidian (volcanic glass), a volcanic stone rock that had never been seen before, were found there. Such natural ores exist in Melos, one of the Cyclades islands, which consists of 220 islands of various sizes, between the Greek mainland and the western Anatolian coast in the south of the Aegean Sea. BC in Cyprus It is known that there was a settlement in 8000 BC and people were engaged in fishing, bird hunting and seashell collecting there.
Archaeological findings and mythological stories show that olive farming and olive oil production, which increased over time, became widespread in the Greek peninsula much later than the Aegean islands. There must be more than one reason for this; The fact that the land in the Greek peninsula is not suitable for agriculture, the low population in the settlements in the form of villages due to its mountainous geographical features and the inability of the villages to communicate with each other due to physical obstacles. In addition, it is thought that the settled peoples in the interior of the Aegean region of Anatolia started olive farming later than the coastal peoples. In time, the settled peoples, whose olive groves grew and started to yield with the trees that were rehabilitated, started to look for ways to obtain more oil from olives. This spreading process of olive tree agriculture is also supported by the archaeological findings remaining from the methods used to obtain olive oil.
In the Bronze Age (3000 BC – 1200 BC), when the urbanization process began to become widespread, the consumption of olives as food was common in the civilizations rising on the Aegean Sea coasts and islands, while olive oil was not used as a food, but for cosmetic purposes to beautify the skin and hair, and to heal wounds. There is a consensus on the fact that it is widely consumed for the purpose of making ointments. Obtaining oil from olives is not a difficult and very efficient process. Even using today's technologies, a maximum of one fifth of oil can be extracted. The use of olive oil in the kitchen only started at the end of the Bronze Age (1100 BC).
BC in the Cairo Museum Although there is a clay tablet with olive trees on it, which is thought to belong to 3000 BC, there is not enough evidence about the details of olive cultivation in Ancient Egypt in those years. B.C. Although an olive tree and an olive squeezing tool were found in the wall paintings of the Sakkarah Pyramid, which date back to 2500 BC, olive cultivation in ancient Egypt civilization dates back to the BC. It is the generally accepted idea that it started to become widespread in the Nile Delta in 1600. Ancient Egypt BC. Pharaoh III, who reigned in 1200 BC. In documents from Ramses attributed to the sun god Ra, it is mentioned that first-class oil obtained from the olive groves in Helipolis was offered for lamps in Ra's temple.
B.C. Olive oil is mentioned in clay plates originating from Crete, which were found to be from 2500 BC. Crete (Crete / Creta); B.C. It is known that there were olive groves in 3000 years, olives were crushed and pressed and olive oil was made. BC In 1700, the stone cylinder application, which greatly facilitated the crushing work, entered and olive oil began to be produced with an efficiency that could be exported. BC in the Knossos Palace of the Minoan Civilization, whose center is the island of Crete. There is a mural of the harvest dance performed in the olive groves and the relief of the sacred bull hitting the olive tree, which is estimated to date back to 1700-1100. The two-meter-high jars (Pithoi) also stored not only wine and grain, but also olive oil. Cubes weighing 70 tons were found in the Palace of Knossos, in the same area BC. There are olive and olive oil figures in vases and wall reliefs from the 1600s. It is also thought that the Cretans took saplings to Greece and North Africa.
Olive tree agriculture started in the south from Upper Mesopotamia/Southern Asia Minor, primarily via Phoenician merchant sailors, in the 4th century BC. It is thought to have spread first to Cyprus in the 2000s, then to the Greek islands, and then to the Greek peninsula over the centuries.
From the Fertile Crescent to Anatolia
Talking about oil production in the city of Ebla, near the city of Aleppo in northern Syria, BC. In the clay tablets (Mari Tablets) written in Akkadian, which are thought to have been written in 2000, it was understood that the olive tree took the third place as the type of product grown in the lands that were cultivated at that time. The documents indicate that the borders of the lands were drawn by counting the olive trees in them. Two plots of land are mentioned in one of these documents with 500 olive trees and the other with 1500 olive trees. In another document, different types of olive oil and the export of high quality oil to other countries are discussed. It is also documented in the same tablets that olive oil is the most expensive product exported from the city of Aleppo. It is thought that olive products have always reached the quality of an accepted exchange item in the trade with other countries, which started with the emergence of writing, in the provision of a good from the other side, which is not available to them. The Mari Tablets also mention the danger of the raids carried out by the communities to the east of the Tigris River, especially the so-called nomadic enemies. The acceleration of the urbanization process in these ages accelerated the development of technology, the technology increased the population and the efficiency of production, and the production also improved trade and led to the emergence of wealthy merchant classes over time.
B.C. 1600 – BC In the time of the Hittites (Etiler), who reigned between 1200 BC, olive farming spread and spread to every part of the Fertile Crescent region and started to extend into Anatolia. At that time, especially in Çukurova, olive cultivation was carried out; It is thought that "gis agis", which means "oil tree" in the texts, is probably an olive tree and that the Hittites sourced their olive oil from the southern coasts of Anatolia. “gis zertum”, which means the same for both “olive” and “olive tree”, whose Hittite language we do not know yet, is an Akat word. The commercial center of the Hittite kingdom, the ancient city of Kaniş, located within the borders of today's Kayseri province, mentions an olive oil order made from Anatolia to the capital of Syria in a tablet.
Southeast of the Fertile Crescent
B.C. It is known that the Babylonian Dynasty, which was the civilization at the south-west end of the Fertile Crescent, which ruled in the 1800s, was famous for its written laws and the laws put on olives by the emperor Hammurabi. According to the law, those who prune the olive tree more than two feet tall in a year are punished with death.
The Spreading Process in the Eastern Mediterranean Islands
B.C. 1500 – BC Between 539 BC, the Phoenicians, known to the Ancient Greeks as the "homeland of the color purple", developed their alphabet that forms the basis of all modern alphabets today. . B.C. In the 1000s, the organization they founded and developed in the Mediterranean, especially in the trade of olive oil and wine, and overseas transportation, reached its highest level.
BC in the southwest of Cyprus in 2008. An ancient city dating from 1850 was found. Archaeologists unearthed tools and equipment for making olive oil, a millstone and a giant print, 12 large amphora called “pithoi” that could hold 3000 liters. It was concluded that the ancient city, which has a workshop and small perfume bottles that can shed light on the widespread and refined use of olive oil in the cosmetic field, was an important perfume trade center in the whole Mediterranean at that time. In addition, as a result of archaeological excavations, among the tablets unearthed in the Palace of Knossos on the island of Crete, findings were revealed about the materials used in perfume making and the oils used to ensure the permanence of the fragrance. It is understood that it was made by people named as.
Spread of Olive Agriculture in the Greek Peninsula
Minoan Civilization rising from Crete Island BC. It starts to disappear in the early 1400s, there are many speculations about the reason, the Minoan Culture, which gradually lost its former power, begins to leave its place to the Mycenaean Culture. The Mycenaean culture is considered to be the first highly developed culture of the European continent. It was the first advanced civilization to rise in the Greek Peninsula with its palace states, city organization, writing system and works of art. B.C. Both wild and cultivated olives are mentioned in the tablets remaining from this civilization, which rose on the islands and coasts of the Aegean Sea in the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece between about 1500-1100. Although there are data showing that oil was consumed as food in the same period, the Cretans of that period mostly consumed olive oil as perfume, while the Mycenaean peoples were mostly for illumination purposes. There is a view that Mycenaean activities during this period constituted the second wave in the westward spread of the reclaimed olive tree and olive oil extraction practices.
From the Eastern Mediterranean to the Western Mediterranean and North of Africa
B.C. Colony-building activities of Phoenician sailors, which started around 1000 BC, enabled the olive tree to reach the coasts of Tunisia, Sardinia and Spain in the Mediterranean, and Morocco and Spain in the Atlantic Sea. In this period, which is also described as the third wave of spreading, the olive tree, which was rehabilitated, was transported to the western end of the Mediterranean and even to the peoples on the shores of the Atlantic Sea adjacent to the Mediterranean.
Iron Age (1190 BC – 330 BC)
B.C. In the 800s, the people living on the shores of the Aegean Sea began to communicate directly with the peoples in the east of Anatolia, resulting in many eastern elements starting to enter the West. In this period, the people of the Aegean coast were re-acquainted with the culture of growing olives and producing olive oil.
Phocaeans (Phokaians) BC. They put an end to the dominance of the Palestinians in the Mediterranean in 800 BC, established colonies in Sicily, Corsica, Marseille, Provence, Spain and Carthage, promoted olive oil and exported seedlings. Foça trade colonies, the insane olives in Marseille, BC. It is known that they were grafted with olive varieties brought from Anatolia around 600 BC. Afterwards, especially during the Greek and Roman periods, mutual relations increased, the fact that the olive tree could be cultivated by improving it became widespread among the local peoples, and then the olive and olive oil culture turned into a common culture of the Mediterranean peoples. In other words; The spread of olive farming in Western Europe took place almost 3000 years after the Fertile Crescent.
B.C. Considered a poet, statesman and the person who laid the foundation of Athenian democracy in 600 years, Solon wrote the olive protection law prohibiting the cutting of the olive tree, 1200 years after Hammurabi, and enacted the death penalty for those who cut the tree. After this action of Solon, the farmers in mainland Greece started to clear the forests and plant olive trees. Peisistratos, one of the tyrants of Athens, who came to power at the end of the same century, is known as the person who adopted olive cultivation in the barren and treeless Greek mainland. Reviving the agricultural economy of the Greek Peninsula through loans, Peisistratos appointed itinerant judges, allowing farmers to enjoy the same rights as urban Athenians.
The Romans contributed greatly to the spread of olive cultivation in the Mediterranean basin. When the Romans conquer North Africa, they will find that the locals, the Berbers, had known and domesticated the olive long ago. Olive cultivation and olive oil culture in North Africa and Spain became widespread during the reign of the Romans. B.C. In 130 years, the Andalusia / Andalucia olive groves of Spain developed thanks to the Romans.
The Romans distribute land to the landless peasants to turn them into olive groves. Those who set up olive groves in Morocco and Algeria were exempted from military service, and those who established olive groves in North Africa did not receive taxes for ten years. Ten years after the planting of the saplings, one third of the olive oil obtained begins to be collected as tax. Those who vaccinated and rehabilitated the weeds were not taxed for five years.
M.S., ruled by the Romans. Until the 500s, olive cultivation has become possible in all geographies with a coast to the Mediterranean. The Romans called the Mediterranean "Mare Nostrum" (Our Sea). At that time, olive farming and olive oil production became a Mediterranean culture, just like wine.
Olive cultivation, which spreads to the Mediterranean basin geographies along the European and African continental coasts, spreads to the geography of Pakistan and China through Iran in the north. Findings regarding the eastern propagation process of the tree have not yet been clarified.
Middle Ages (500 – 1453 AD)
With the olive symbol, Christianity spread to regions that only knew the name of the 'olive'. Olives were mentioned in the holy books of the Crusaders, who came out of the northernmost part of Europe and descended to the south. Olive ornaments, a memory from Solomon's temple in the Old Covenant (Old Testament), were found on some house doors from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the interior of Russia.
VII in Tunisia. At the end of the century, a mosque named "Zeytune" was built during the Umayyad period. There is a rumor that the mosque, also known as the "Tunisia Great Mosque", got its name from the olive tree in the place where it was built. It is also thought that this name may have been chosen in reference to the olive, which is mentioned as the symbol of God's light in the 35th verse of the Surah Nur, with the wish that the madrasah, which was built together with the mosque, would spread the lights of knowledge in the region, just as olive oil radiates light. It is one of the first structures built in Tunisia, and it influenced the mosques built in Tunisia after it in terms of architecture. He played a role in the rise of the city of Tunisia to a central position. At that time, it was one of the most important Islamic science centers in North Africa and played an important role in the spread of Islamic thought. Repairs and maintenance were made many times by the Ottomans, and it was ensured that it continued its scientific activities. The science council in Zeytuna Mosque, which played an important role in the struggle against the French and the establishment of the Tunisian State, turned into a university institution in 1956 with the independence of the Tunisian State. It was included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1979.
Andalusia was the name given to the region in the Iberian Peninsula under the influence of Muslim Arabs between 711 and 1492. Granada is the center city of Ben-i Ahmer State, the last Muslim state in Spain, which bears the cultural traces of Andalusia the most. This city, which was one of the most important scientific centers of Andalusia and Europe during the Islamic rule in Andalusia, is also defined as the "Bride of Andalusia Cities". It was one of the cities that rose in olive agriculture at that time, according to Kazvini (1848), one of the Arab travelers who came here; It was believed that there was a miraculous olive tree in the garden of a church in the city.
Once again, Seville, one of the capitals of Andalusia and the most important trade center, was one of the prominent places in the olive oil trade. Olive trees cover a very large area on Mount Şeref in Işbiliye, it is described as "the sunlight cannot come on people from the shadow of olive and fig trees". Since olive trees covered a very dense area, olive oil trade was also in that period, as it is today. is the most important economic activity.
New Age (1453 – 1789 AD)
M.S. Olive tree agriculture, which was brought to the Americas with the Christian missionary Spaniards in the 1500s, spreads south from Mexico to Peru, Argentina and Chile. There are olive groves in Argentina at an altitude of 2000 meters.
Modern Age (1789 AD – present)
His arrival in the United States was through a missionary who was the founder of the city of San Diego in the state of California in the 18th century. At the beginning of the 1800s, it is transported to the Australian continent with the Italians.
Today, the olive tree has started to spread towards northern Europe due to climate change. It continues to spread as an ornamental plant from the Mediterranean coast to the cities of northern Europe, and it does not bear fruit in that geography yet. Not only the climate but also the human factor is a factor in this spread. prof. Dr. Christos Hadziiossif (Crete Institute for Mediterranean Studies-FORTH) describes this process as “changes in the way man interacts with his natural environment occur at shorter time intervals than changes in the natural environment itself”.
Last word
Today, molecular geneticists have attempted to rearrange plants, technology on the one hand, genetics scientists on the one hand, and we use what we have to get more efficiency. The knowledge we have built and the technology we have created seem to have taken the agricultural revolution, which hunter-gatherers started by deciding to settle, to the next stage. It is not known what this action will evolve into in the future, but it is unlikely that olive farming will not be affected.
Compiled by: Uğur Saraçoğlu (ugisaracoglu@yahoo.com.tr)
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