Olives and Olive Oil in Monotheistic Religions - Jewish Belief
29-11-2024
16:13
Jacob Wrestling with an Angel, Eugene Delacroix, After Jacob wrestled with the angel and was blessed, it is believed that the descendants of Jacob were given the name Israel (Wrestling with the Angel, or Seeing God). The angel's right hand is depicted on Jacob's left thigh, and in the story the wrestling match ends with Jacob being wounded in the thigh. This wrestling image of the artist was used by director Sally Potter in the poster for the film "The Tango Lesson" ( source ).
Israeli literature (literature; Torah or Old Testament) has survived to our time in a well-preserved form after a long writing process covering an average of a thousand years. The Old Testament, especially the Genesis section, contains many mythological stories.
The beginning of Israel's history begins with the migration of its ancestors to the land of Canaan (the geography where Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel are located). The first of these migrations is the influx of the people called "Hebrews" under the leadership of Abraham in ancient sources. It is thought to have occurred around 1800 BC. The second influx is the movement of the nomadic or semi-nomadic Arameans led by Jacob, whose ancestors are also called "Israelites". The third influx, directed towards the settled people of the Hebrews, was the people who fled/migrated from Egypt after living in Egypt for a long time at the end of the 1300 BC.
All these immigrant peoples who formed the Israelite people encountered the Semitic peoples when they entered the geography called Canaan. This region, also known as Phoenicia, was an ancient region located in today's Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and the Levant Region of Israel, which was dependent on Egypt at times, and had city-states that prospered with large trade and construction projects. The peoples in the region were completely settled and had adopted an agricultural economy. The most prominent agricultural product was the olive. The new immigrants encountered the religious beliefs of the settled peoples. Historical sources show that the agricultural ceremonies and seasonal festivals of the settled people were gradually adopted by the newcomers. This assimilation or integration continued until the Babylonian Exile (500-600 B.C.) of the peoples of the region.
In the Old Testament, God promised the Israelites, whose roots were in ancient Egyptian civilization, “lands of olive oil.” The olive tree and olive oil are mentioned in many texts throughout the book. The olive and the oil obtained from it are a symbol created by God, a sign of God. Olives are mentioned in 23 verses, and olive oil in 132 verses.
The Book of Genesis/The Beginning
Chapter 8:11; "The dove returned in the evening with a freshly plucked olive leaf in its beak. Then Noah knew that the waters had receded from the earth." Life was ended and started again with water. The first sign of life is the olive tree, the olive tree, which is the symbol of immortality in the consciousness of the people of that region, resisted the flood, and the peace between God and people was symbolized by the olive branch.
According to the "renewed world after the apocalypse" discourse in the book, the new world will be ruled by an "anointed" (messiah, messiah; anointed with oil) priest king/prophet. The expression "anointed servant of Yahweh (Lord, God)" is an element of Hebrew religious consciousness, and for monarchies in the city-state structure that grew and prospered with olive cultivation at that time, it was natural for this person to be a "king". Being "anointed with oil" is a sign of being chosen by God. In the story of "Jacob's Dream" in Genesis 28:18, Jacob builds a temple where he sleeps, and in Genesis 35:14, he pours olive oil on the place where he talks with God.
All the gods left from polytheistic pagan beliefs were rejected, and in order to keep society together, an attempt was made to create a single, absolute and infinite god consciousness above all else. Olive oil appears throughout the book in more than one section as an element that is an indicator of what is "sacred". Throughout the book, the olive tree and its fruit continue to maintain their sacred place in the minds of believers.
The Book of Exodus
Throughout the book, olive oil is a sacred fuel for the lamps in the temple, burned with fragrant trees in religious ceremonies, and used to sanctify temple objects and food-based offerings in rituals performed for the deity. In chapters 25:6 and 27:20, God asks Moses to bring olive oil as fuel for the lamps in the Tent of Meeting (the mobile temple used during the Exodus); in verse 35:28, "...they brought spices and olive oil for the lamp, for the anointing oil, and for the fragrant incense," seems to be a list of materials used in the temple rituals. It is not known whether the incense in the above-mentioned statements is of spice or bark origin. Natural compounds such as Myrrh, a resin with a peculiar odor that hardens when exposed to air and exudes from trees, and balsam from the Boswellia Carterii plant emit very strong odors that can also be toxic when heated. These compounds used for making incense caused people to become ecstatic and strengthen their beliefs, priests and people believed that thanks to this, prayers would rise to the sky more quickly. In Anatolia, the smell that comes from the bark of the incense tree is called "burun".
In the 30:24 section of this section, there is also a perfume recipe where olive oil is used as a raw material; "...Take this rare spice: 500 shekels of liquid myrrh, half as much, that is, 250 shekels of fragrant cinnamon and reed, 500 shekels of the holy place, and a turkey of olive oil. Make from these with the skill of a perfumer a holy anointing oil with a fragrant scent. It shall be called holy anointing oil..." When the entirety of this section where anointing oil is explained is examined, it is understood that olive oil is explained as a perfume/ointment (fragrant holy anointing oil) to be used on the body, and that this anointing oil will also be applied to the objects in the temple, thus making the objects sacred. God wants the sacred objects in the portable tent-shaped temple built for use during the migration to be rubbed with this oil. Rubbing the objects in the temple with oil may be a culture brought by the tribes migrating from Egypt. It is thought that the first area of use of oils and ointments in ancient times was religious rituals. The ointments were placed in white marble vessels in front of the statues of the gods, and the priests in the temples would take them with their fingers and apply them to the statues. The most famous of these vessels is the plaster cosmetic jar of the Egyptian goddess Bastet (Lady of the Ointment Jar) in the Cairo Museum ( source ). The oiled statue appeared brighter and released pleasant scents into the temple, which must have been good for the spiritual state of the worshippers.
There are many archaeological findings that olive oil was used in perfume production in ancient times. In pagan beliefs of those times, the ritual of burying the dead with olive oil or by rubbing them with olive oil was common. However, according to the Torah, the oil made with this recipe would only be used to "sanctify" and could not be used by ordinary people; "...It shall not be poured on a human body. No similar recipe shall be made with the same recipe. It is holy and it shall be holy to you." This prohibition is repeated in other sections of the book. The person rubbed with oil (priest king) and temple items are now sacred, but ordinary people are forbidden from applying olive oil to their bodies. The prohibition of applying oil to the body may stem from the concern of the people to return to the polytheistic religions of their ancestors in the past that still exist in their consciousness, or; considering that olive tree cultivation was not very common in those times and the technology of obtaining oil from olives was not developed, it is logical to make it a law that a very rare object would be used only for the priest king and the temple.
It is not surprising that olive oil, which was difficult to obtain and believed to be sacred in ancient Egypt where they had previously lived a settled life, and which even there was only easy access for the upper class nobility, was given such sacred meanings for a migrating people. The culture of applying olive oil to the body and to the funeral, which remained from the settlements they migrated to, has now evolved into a practice that is a sign of holiness, a right granted only to the chosen one, the priest king, who was God's chosen one. Considering that as a migrant people, the general population would be poor; it is obvious that an object like olive oil, which had a very high economic value at the time, was not something that could be easily obtained by everyone to apply to their bodies.
Book of Leviticus
In the Book of Leviticus, olive oil is an ingredient used in grain offerings made from unleavened fine flour prepared for God. Chapter 2:2 states, "...The priest shall take handfuls of fine flour, olive oil, and all frankincense and burn them on the altar as a memorial portion. This is a burnt offering and a pleasing odor to the Lord." "Fine flour", like olive oil, was a difficult food to obtain at that time and was only available to kings and nobles. Frankincense was probably a type of spice, a scented tree bark or resin used with scented trees. The odor released when burned - a type of incense - must have pleased the worshippers during the ceremony.
In the offerings prepared to atone for sin or fault, olive oil is not used with grain, but in the guilt offering, it is used with meat.
The 14th chapter of the book, which describes how an offering should be made in the purification rite for someone with a skin disease, seems to be a remnant of ancient pagan beliefs: "...Then he shall take some of one log (about 500 cc, Babylonian measurement system) of olive oil and pour it into the palm of his left hand. He shall dip the finger of his right hand in the olive oil and sprinkle it seven times in the presence of the Lord. He shall put some of the remaining oil in the palm of his hand on the lobe of the right ear of the person to be cleansed, and on the big toe of his right hand and of his right foot, over the blood of the trespass offering." Similar to the use of water in the purification rites of ancient Egypt and later Christianity, olive oil is used as a sacred object instead of water for purification in this rite.
Since the gods in the consciousness of the Mesopotamian people were "human-shaped", the food offered to the gods consisted of real food consumed by humans. It is thought that the primary purpose of the food offerings, which are described as bloodless sacrifices, may have been to satisfy or give pleasure to the gods that they thought were similar to humans in their consciousness. In addition to the sacrificial meat that they were obliged to offer regularly to their gods in their consciousness, it has been proven by archaeological data that they were also offered basic foodstuffs such as grain, bread, fruit and olive oil produced in agricultural lands that they consumed in order to live. In more archaic societies, the first agricultural product of the season was offered to the chief or priest of the community after supernatural powers, and these two were often the same person. The behavior of sacrificing the first born child or the first newborn animal calf, or offering the dough made from the first harvest to the god, which existed in primitive societies of earlier ancient times, is called "hak kurbanı" (right sacrifice). It has also been commented that religious practices such as sacrifice and offering, which continued to be implemented in city-states that chose to live a settled life and became more crowded, were in practice a kind of tax - given to the ruling upper classes.
Bloodless offerings were also used in funeral rituals. In ancient Greek funeral rituals, animal or human blood, wine and olive oil were used in liquid offerings (libations; pouring wine, oil or milk on the ground in honor of the gods) made with the funeral, and the corpse was washed and rubbed with oil by women over the age of sixty before burial. Similar rituals continued in the Roman period, for example, in funeral rituals, the corpse was anointed with myrrh and the face was sprinkled with olive oil, believing that it would purify its sins.
Counting Book in the Desert
The use of olive oil as a lamp fuel is repeated throughout the book. In the places where offerings to God are described, especially in Chapter 7, the phrase "fine flour mixed with olive oil" appears several times. Some of the offering recipes in these chapters give detailed measurements.
The Book of Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy 7, 8, 11 and 28, where the words olive and olive oil are used, begin with promises made to the people who do not abandon the monotheistic faith. Then it is explained how God will curse and punish them if they abandon the monotheistic faith; "You shall have olive groves throughout your land, but you shall not anoint yourself with olive oil. Your olive trees shall drop their fruit on the ground."
When the Torah is examined, it will be understood that there are many statements in some sections about how the belief in the absolute monotheism in Hebrew religious thought will elevate the believers to a privileged level - if they do not abandon this idea - how they will become a sovereign nation and eventually lead the creator's servants to an unchanging peace. According to Mircea Eliade, the joy and exaltation in the content of the texts in these sections, the unique descriptions of heaven, are like the forerunners of Christianity.
In the chapters of "Deuteronomy", not only the blessings promised to the people who obey God's commands, but also God's curse when the commands are not obeyed are explained through the olive; "...Your olive trees will drop their fruit on the ground.", "They will leave you neither grain, nor wine, nor oil, nor the calves of your herds, nor the lambs of your flocks, until you are no more."
In olive cultivation, rain falling at an inappropriate time can reduce yields or cause crops to die. In Deuteronomy 11, God’s power is described through the timing of the rain cycle, which is important for the yield of agricultural crops.
In the 14th chapter, it is ordered that some of the olive oil obtained be consumed in the temple, and in the 18th chapter, it is ordered that the first olive oil of the season be taken to the oracle in the temple. The fact that the first product obtained from agricultural activities was taken to the temple, the residence of the priest king, has also been interpreted as the first tax application in human history.
The divine command in Deuteronomy 24:20 describes the behaviors that governed social relations and distinguished the peoples of Israelite descent from the people of Canaan who were not of them and had previously settled there: "When you have threshed your olive trees and gathered their fruit, you shall not return to gather what is left on the branches. You shall leave what is left for the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow." There are similar commands for grapes in the book. The expression "threshing the trees" refers to the harvest of olives, which is done by striking the branches with spears. Olive harvesting was done by striking the branches with spears for thousands of years. Today, this practice has almost disappeared. Leaving the produce that has not yet ripened and separated from the branch or that cannot be harvested for others is a type of zakat practice. Even in today's modern harvesting methods, where machines are used, a small amount of olives still remain on the branch.
Deuteronomy 33 contains statements in which Moses blesses the tribes of Israel before his death. In verse 24, Moses says of Asher, "...let him dip his foot in oil," thus expressing Moses' wish that Asher be blessed by God. In Jewish history, the tribe of Asher is known for its wisdom and its wealth in oil. This statement is likely a narrative of families and their struggle for leadership or political dominance.
Book of Judges
“One day the trees wanted to anoint themselves a king; they went to the olive tree and said, ‘Come and be our king.’ The olive tree replied, ‘Shall I leave my oil, which is used to honor gods and people, and go swing on the trees?’” (Torah, Judges 9:8, 9). In the Judges section, not only the olive but also the fig and grape refuse to be the king of the plants.
This section is generally a narrative of the process of a king named Abimelech establishing dominance in the city. During this struggle, there was probably a conflict between the pagan people in the city and those who believed in a single god. The gods of the pagan people who were excluded as idolaters seem to have been symbolized through agricultural products. These fruits were agricultural products that developed the agricultural culture of the time, but were the occupation of the settled people, and required the most labor and time to grow. According to the polytheistic settled Pagan people, these fruits were sacred gifts created by different gods and given to people. There are also verses in the Quran where these fruits are discussed. However, for the Jewish faith, which is trying to strengthen the belief in a single and absolute god, this is an idea that must be rejected. For the settled Jewish community, who are no longer immigrants, it was unacceptable that these fruits were created by different gods. The story seems to be an expression of the rejection of the pagan gods who were associated with the most important agricultural products of those times.
2. The Book of Samuel
In 2 Samuel 15:30, the story of a sorrowful and mourning king going up to a mountain believed to be sacred is told: "David went up to the Mount of Olives, weeping. His head was covered, he walked barefoot. Everyone with him had their heads covered, and they went up the mountain weeping." David and his supporters were running away from their opponents who had risen up against them and were victorious, in mourning and grief. They would go up to the Mount of Olives and ask for God's help. In the human imagination of that period, the gods were immortals living on high mountains. This imagination, which was related to the place where God existed, would evolve from the mountain to the sky and in time to a position even higher than the sky with the development of the consciousness of a single god.
1. The Book of Kings
In the 1st Book of Kings of the Old Testament (Chapter 5; Preparations for the Construction of the Temple, 2Ch.2:1-18), the commercial relationship between King Hiram of Tyre and Prophet Solomon is mentioned. David died, his son Solomon succeeded him, and Israel was at its most powerful and wealthy period as a state in its history. King Solomon would send pure olive oil to King Hiram in exchange for the cedar trees needed to build the temple that his father could not build: "Hiram provided Solomon with as much cedar and pine logs as he wanted. Every year Solomon would give Hiram twenty thousand cors of wheat and twenty cors of pure olive oil as food for his palace. The Lord gave Solomon wisdom as He had promised. There was peace between Solomon and Hiram. They made a covenant between them."
As understood from this section; the food provided to the palace officials only covered the cost of the logs, King Solomon sent wheat and pure olive oil to Hiram's palace as well as barley and wine as wages for the workers. It is seen that the Phoenician workers were paid a certain amount of money in return for their work. The Phoenicians were enterprising traders and brave experienced sailors, they turned to seafaring due to the scarcity of agricultural lands, they had their own writing system, they emerged much earlier than the ancient Greek civilization together with the Egyptian civilization of the period - they contributed to the foundations of the Greek civilization - they were an advanced civilization of the Eastern Mediterranean. Archaeological excavations and findings show that the Egyptians established trade relations with the Phoenicians living in this region as early as 3000 BC. Therefore, it is natural that King Solomon, whose ancestors were immigrants from Egypt, had close relations with the Phoenician city-states. The Phoenician cities of the period were the leaders of the region in terms of their skills in craftsmanship, they had three large cities consisting of many small workshops, manufacturing centers, and could be considered technological centers for those times. It is understood that during the time of King Solomon, a city-state that had settled down with agriculture and especially olive cultivation, did not yet have the experience of craftsmen to build a temple, and that technical experience was received from a neighboring city-state in exchange for agricultural products. This section also mentions the discontent of the Israelites due to forced labor, which would gradually lead to mass revolt and the division and weakening of the kingdom immediately after King Solomon's death.
2. The Book of Kings
"...The woman said, 'Your servant has nothing in his house except a little olive oil.'"
Chapter 4, or "Elisha's Help to the Poor Widow," is an account of the practice of social assistance. Unable to pay her deceased husband's debts, the mother's efforts to save her sons from slavery are told through the donations of olive oil she receives from her neighbors.
In Chapter 18:31-32, the promises made by the king of the Assyrian State, who occupied the city, to the people of Israel in return for their surrender and not obeying the priest-king Hezekiah are as follows; "...For thus says the king of Assyria, 'Surrender and come to me. So each one will eat from his own vine and from his own fig tree and drink from his own cistern until I come and bring you into a land like your own, a land of olive oil and honey - a land of grain and new wine, bread and grapes..."
1. Book of Chronicles
Israeli literature (literature; Torah or Old Testament) has survived to our time in a well-preserved form after a long writing process covering an average of a thousand years. The Old Testament, especially the Genesis section, contains many mythological stories.
The beginning of Israel's history begins with the migration of its ancestors to the land of Canaan (the geography where Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel are located). The first of these migrations is the influx of the people called "Hebrews" under the leadership of Abraham in ancient sources. It is thought to have occurred around 1800 BC. The second influx is the movement of the nomadic or semi-nomadic Arameans led by Jacob, whose ancestors are also called "Israelites". The third influx, directed towards the settled people of the Hebrews, was the people who fled/migrated from Egypt after living in Egypt for a long time at the end of the 1300 BC.
All these immigrant peoples who formed the Israelite people encountered the Semitic peoples when they entered the geography called Canaan. This region, also known as Phoenicia, was an ancient region located in today's Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and the Levant Region of Israel, which was dependent on Egypt at times, and had city-states that prospered with large trade and construction projects. The peoples in the region were completely settled and had adopted an agricultural economy. The most prominent agricultural product was the olive. The new immigrants encountered the religious beliefs of the settled peoples. Historical sources show that the agricultural ceremonies and seasonal festivals of the settled people were gradually adopted by the newcomers. This assimilation or integration continued until the Babylonian Exile (500-600 B.C.) of the peoples of the region.
In the Old Testament, God promised the Israelites, whose roots were in ancient Egyptian civilization, “lands of olive oil.” The olive tree and olive oil are mentioned in many texts throughout the book. The olive and the oil obtained from it are a symbol created by God, a sign of God. Olives are mentioned in 23 verses, and olive oil in 132 verses.
The Book of Genesis/The Beginning
Chapter 8:11; "The dove returned in the evening with a freshly plucked olive leaf in its beak. Then Noah knew that the waters had receded from the earth." Life was ended and started again with water. The first sign of life is the olive tree, the olive tree, which is the symbol of immortality in the consciousness of the people of that region, resisted the flood, and the peace between God and people was symbolized by the olive branch.
According to the "renewed world after the apocalypse" discourse in the book, the new world will be ruled by an "anointed" (messiah, messiah; anointed with oil) priest king/prophet. The expression "anointed servant of Yahweh (Lord, God)" is an element of Hebrew religious consciousness, and for monarchies in the city-state structure that grew and prospered with olive cultivation at that time, it was natural for this person to be a "king". Being "anointed with oil" is a sign of being chosen by God. In the story of "Jacob's Dream" in Genesis 28:18, Jacob builds a temple where he sleeps, and in Genesis 35:14, he pours olive oil on the place where he talks with God.
All the gods left from polytheistic pagan beliefs were rejected, and in order to keep society together, an attempt was made to create a single, absolute and infinite god consciousness above all else. Olive oil appears throughout the book in more than one section as an element that is an indicator of what is "sacred". Throughout the book, the olive tree and its fruit continue to maintain their sacred place in the minds of believers.
The Book of Exodus
Throughout the book, olive oil is a sacred fuel for the lamps in the temple, burned with fragrant trees in religious ceremonies, and used to sanctify temple objects and food-based offerings in rituals performed for the deity. In chapters 25:6 and 27:20, God asks Moses to bring olive oil as fuel for the lamps in the Tent of Meeting (the mobile temple used during the Exodus); in verse 35:28, "...they brought spices and olive oil for the lamp, for the anointing oil, and for the fragrant incense," seems to be a list of materials used in the temple rituals. It is not known whether the incense in the above-mentioned statements is of spice or bark origin. Natural compounds such as Myrrh, a resin with a peculiar odor that hardens when exposed to air and exudes from trees, and balsam from the Boswellia Carterii plant emit very strong odors that can also be toxic when heated. These compounds used for making incense caused people to become ecstatic and strengthen their beliefs, priests and people believed that thanks to this, prayers would rise to the sky more quickly. In Anatolia, the smell that comes from the bark of the incense tree is called "burun".
In the 30:24 section of this section, there is also a perfume recipe where olive oil is used as a raw material; "...Take this rare spice: 500 shekels of liquid myrrh, half as much, that is, 250 shekels of fragrant cinnamon and reed, 500 shekels of the holy place, and a turkey of olive oil. Make from these with the skill of a perfumer a holy anointing oil with a fragrant scent. It shall be called holy anointing oil..." When the entirety of this section where anointing oil is explained is examined, it is understood that olive oil is explained as a perfume/ointment (fragrant holy anointing oil) to be used on the body, and that this anointing oil will also be applied to the objects in the temple, thus making the objects sacred. God wants the sacred objects in the portable tent-shaped temple built for use during the migration to be rubbed with this oil. Rubbing the objects in the temple with oil may be a culture brought by the tribes migrating from Egypt. It is thought that the first area of use of oils and ointments in ancient times was religious rituals. The ointments were placed in white marble vessels in front of the statues of the gods, and the priests in the temples would take them with their fingers and apply them to the statues. The most famous of these vessels is the plaster cosmetic jar of the Egyptian goddess Bastet (Lady of the Ointment Jar) in the Cairo Museum ( source ). The oiled statue appeared brighter and released pleasant scents into the temple, which must have been good for the spiritual state of the worshippers.
There are many archaeological findings that olive oil was used in perfume production in ancient times. In pagan beliefs of those times, the ritual of burying the dead with olive oil or by rubbing them with olive oil was common. However, according to the Torah, the oil made with this recipe would only be used to "sanctify" and could not be used by ordinary people; "...It shall not be poured on a human body. No similar recipe shall be made with the same recipe. It is holy and it shall be holy to you." This prohibition is repeated in other sections of the book. The person rubbed with oil (priest king) and temple items are now sacred, but ordinary people are forbidden from applying olive oil to their bodies. The prohibition of applying oil to the body may stem from the concern of the people to return to the polytheistic religions of their ancestors in the past that still exist in their consciousness, or; considering that olive tree cultivation was not very common in those times and the technology of obtaining oil from olives was not developed, it is logical to make it a law that a very rare object would be used only for the priest king and the temple.
It is not surprising that olive oil, which was difficult to obtain and believed to be sacred in ancient Egypt where they had previously lived a settled life, and which even there was only easy access for the upper class nobility, was given such sacred meanings for a migrating people. The culture of applying olive oil to the body and to the funeral, which remained from the settlements they migrated to, has now evolved into a practice that is a sign of holiness, a right granted only to the chosen one, the priest king, who was God's chosen one. Considering that as a migrant people, the general population would be poor; it is obvious that an object like olive oil, which had a very high economic value at the time, was not something that could be easily obtained by everyone to apply to their bodies.
Book of Leviticus
In the Book of Leviticus, olive oil is an ingredient used in grain offerings made from unleavened fine flour prepared for God. Chapter 2:2 states, "...The priest shall take handfuls of fine flour, olive oil, and all frankincense and burn them on the altar as a memorial portion. This is a burnt offering and a pleasing odor to the Lord." "Fine flour", like olive oil, was a difficult food to obtain at that time and was only available to kings and nobles. Frankincense was probably a type of spice, a scented tree bark or resin used with scented trees. The odor released when burned - a type of incense - must have pleased the worshippers during the ceremony.
In the offerings prepared to atone for sin or fault, olive oil is not used with grain, but in the guilt offering, it is used with meat.
The 14th chapter of the book, which describes how an offering should be made in the purification rite for someone with a skin disease, seems to be a remnant of ancient pagan beliefs: "...Then he shall take some of one log (about 500 cc, Babylonian measurement system) of olive oil and pour it into the palm of his left hand. He shall dip the finger of his right hand in the olive oil and sprinkle it seven times in the presence of the Lord. He shall put some of the remaining oil in the palm of his hand on the lobe of the right ear of the person to be cleansed, and on the big toe of his right hand and of his right foot, over the blood of the trespass offering." Similar to the use of water in the purification rites of ancient Egypt and later Christianity, olive oil is used as a sacred object instead of water for purification in this rite.
Since the gods in the consciousness of the Mesopotamian people were "human-shaped", the food offered to the gods consisted of real food consumed by humans. It is thought that the primary purpose of the food offerings, which are described as bloodless sacrifices, may have been to satisfy or give pleasure to the gods that they thought were similar to humans in their consciousness. In addition to the sacrificial meat that they were obliged to offer regularly to their gods in their consciousness, it has been proven by archaeological data that they were also offered basic foodstuffs such as grain, bread, fruit and olive oil produced in agricultural lands that they consumed in order to live. In more archaic societies, the first agricultural product of the season was offered to the chief or priest of the community after supernatural powers, and these two were often the same person. The behavior of sacrificing the first born child or the first newborn animal calf, or offering the dough made from the first harvest to the god, which existed in primitive societies of earlier ancient times, is called "hak kurbanı" (right sacrifice). It has also been commented that religious practices such as sacrifice and offering, which continued to be implemented in city-states that chose to live a settled life and became more crowded, were in practice a kind of tax - given to the ruling upper classes.
Bloodless offerings were also used in funeral rituals. In ancient Greek funeral rituals, animal or human blood, wine and olive oil were used in liquid offerings (libations; pouring wine, oil or milk on the ground in honor of the gods) made with the funeral, and the corpse was washed and rubbed with oil by women over the age of sixty before burial. Similar rituals continued in the Roman period, for example, in funeral rituals, the corpse was anointed with myrrh and the face was sprinkled with olive oil, believing that it would purify its sins.
Counting Book in the Desert
The use of olive oil as a lamp fuel is repeated throughout the book. In the places where offerings to God are described, especially in Chapter 7, the phrase "fine flour mixed with olive oil" appears several times. Some of the offering recipes in these chapters give detailed measurements.
The Book of Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy 7, 8, 11 and 28, where the words olive and olive oil are used, begin with promises made to the people who do not abandon the monotheistic faith. Then it is explained how God will curse and punish them if they abandon the monotheistic faith; "You shall have olive groves throughout your land, but you shall not anoint yourself with olive oil. Your olive trees shall drop their fruit on the ground."
When the Torah is examined, it will be understood that there are many statements in some sections about how the belief in the absolute monotheism in Hebrew religious thought will elevate the believers to a privileged level - if they do not abandon this idea - how they will become a sovereign nation and eventually lead the creator's servants to an unchanging peace. According to Mircea Eliade, the joy and exaltation in the content of the texts in these sections, the unique descriptions of heaven, are like the forerunners of Christianity.
In the chapters of "Deuteronomy", not only the blessings promised to the people who obey God's commands, but also God's curse when the commands are not obeyed are explained through the olive; "...Your olive trees will drop their fruit on the ground.", "They will leave you neither grain, nor wine, nor oil, nor the calves of your herds, nor the lambs of your flocks, until you are no more."
In olive cultivation, rain falling at an inappropriate time can reduce yields or cause crops to die. In Deuteronomy 11, God’s power is described through the timing of the rain cycle, which is important for the yield of agricultural crops.
In the 14th chapter, it is ordered that some of the olive oil obtained be consumed in the temple, and in the 18th chapter, it is ordered that the first olive oil of the season be taken to the oracle in the temple. The fact that the first product obtained from agricultural activities was taken to the temple, the residence of the priest king, has also been interpreted as the first tax application in human history.
The divine command in Deuteronomy 24:20 describes the behaviors that governed social relations and distinguished the peoples of Israelite descent from the people of Canaan who were not of them and had previously settled there: "When you have threshed your olive trees and gathered their fruit, you shall not return to gather what is left on the branches. You shall leave what is left for the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow." There are similar commands for grapes in the book. The expression "threshing the trees" refers to the harvest of olives, which is done by striking the branches with spears. Olive harvesting was done by striking the branches with spears for thousands of years. Today, this practice has almost disappeared. Leaving the produce that has not yet ripened and separated from the branch or that cannot be harvested for others is a type of zakat practice. Even in today's modern harvesting methods, where machines are used, a small amount of olives still remain on the branch.
Deuteronomy 33 contains statements in which Moses blesses the tribes of Israel before his death. In verse 24, Moses says of Asher, "...let him dip his foot in oil," thus expressing Moses' wish that Asher be blessed by God. In Jewish history, the tribe of Asher is known for its wisdom and its wealth in oil. This statement is likely a narrative of families and their struggle for leadership or political dominance.
Book of Judges
“One day the trees wanted to anoint themselves a king; they went to the olive tree and said, ‘Come and be our king.’ The olive tree replied, ‘Shall I leave my oil, which is used to honor gods and people, and go swing on the trees?’” (Torah, Judges 9:8, 9). In the Judges section, not only the olive but also the fig and grape refuse to be the king of the plants.
This section is generally a narrative of the process of a king named Abimelech establishing dominance in the city. During this struggle, there was probably a conflict between the pagan people in the city and those who believed in a single god. The gods of the pagan people who were excluded as idolaters seem to have been symbolized through agricultural products. These fruits were agricultural products that developed the agricultural culture of the time, but were the occupation of the settled people, and required the most labor and time to grow. According to the polytheistic settled Pagan people, these fruits were sacred gifts created by different gods and given to people. There are also verses in the Quran where these fruits are discussed. However, for the Jewish faith, which is trying to strengthen the belief in a single and absolute god, this is an idea that must be rejected. For the settled Jewish community, who are no longer immigrants, it was unacceptable that these fruits were created by different gods. The story seems to be an expression of the rejection of the pagan gods who were associated with the most important agricultural products of those times.
1. The Book of Samuel
Let's look at verses 11-14 of chapter 8; "This will be the government of the one who will reign over you: He will take your sons and assign them to his chariots and cavalry. They will run before his chariots. He will appoint some to ride and some to command the fifties. He will assign some to plow his land and reap his harvest, and some to equip his weapons and chariots. He will take your daughters to be perfumers, cooks, and bakers. He will take your choice fields, your vineyards, and your olive groves and give them to his servants."
The oldest source on the role of women in perfume production is found on Assyrian clay tablets. The tablet mentions an aromatic ointment created by soaking plant materials in a series of oil and water processes. It has been understood that women working in this sector were called "assistant to the lady of the palace" or "perfume maker". It is understood that perfume making in the palace was an ancient profession in which women played a role in Mesopotamian civilizations.
2. The Book of Samuel
In 2 Samuel 15:30, the story of a sorrowful and mourning king going up to a mountain believed to be sacred is told: "David went up to the Mount of Olives, weeping. His head was covered, he walked barefoot. Everyone with him had their heads covered, and they went up the mountain weeping." David and his supporters were running away from their opponents who had risen up against them and were victorious, in mourning and grief. They would go up to the Mount of Olives and ask for God's help. In the human imagination of that period, the gods were immortals living on high mountains. This imagination, which was related to the place where God existed, would evolve from the mountain to the sky and in time to a position even higher than the sky with the development of the consciousness of a single god.
1. The Book of Kings
In the 1st Book of Kings of the Old Testament (Chapter 5; Preparations for the Construction of the Temple, 2Ch.2:1-18), the commercial relationship between King Hiram of Tyre and Prophet Solomon is mentioned. David died, his son Solomon succeeded him, and Israel was at its most powerful and wealthy period as a state in its history. King Solomon would send pure olive oil to King Hiram in exchange for the cedar trees needed to build the temple that his father could not build: "Hiram provided Solomon with as much cedar and pine logs as he wanted. Every year Solomon would give Hiram twenty thousand cors of wheat and twenty cors of pure olive oil as food for his palace. The Lord gave Solomon wisdom as He had promised. There was peace between Solomon and Hiram. They made a covenant between them."
As understood from this section; the food provided to the palace officials only covered the cost of the logs, King Solomon sent wheat and pure olive oil to Hiram's palace as well as barley and wine as wages for the workers. It is seen that the Phoenician workers were paid a certain amount of money in return for their work. The Phoenicians were enterprising traders and brave experienced sailors, they turned to seafaring due to the scarcity of agricultural lands, they had their own writing system, they emerged much earlier than the ancient Greek civilization together with the Egyptian civilization of the period - they contributed to the foundations of the Greek civilization - they were an advanced civilization of the Eastern Mediterranean. Archaeological excavations and findings show that the Egyptians established trade relations with the Phoenicians living in this region as early as 3000 BC. Therefore, it is natural that King Solomon, whose ancestors were immigrants from Egypt, had close relations with the Phoenician city-states. The Phoenician cities of the period were the leaders of the region in terms of their skills in craftsmanship, they had three large cities consisting of many small workshops, manufacturing centers, and could be considered technological centers for those times. It is understood that during the time of King Solomon, a city-state that had settled down with agriculture and especially olive cultivation, did not yet have the experience of craftsmen to build a temple, and that technical experience was received from a neighboring city-state in exchange for agricultural products. This section also mentions the discontent of the Israelites due to forced labor, which would gradually lead to mass revolt and the division and weakening of the kingdom immediately after King Solomon's death.
2. The Book of Kings
"...The woman said, 'Your servant has nothing in his house except a little olive oil.'"
Chapter 4, or "Elisha's Help to the Poor Widow," is an account of the practice of social assistance. Unable to pay her deceased husband's debts, the mother's efforts to save her sons from slavery are told through the donations of olive oil she receives from her neighbors.
In Chapter 18:31-32, the promises made by the king of the Assyrian State, who occupied the city, to the people of Israel in return for their surrender and not obeying the priest-king Hezekiah are as follows; "...For thus says the king of Assyria, 'Surrender and come to me. So each one will eat from his own vine and from his own fig tree and drink from his own cistern until I come and bring you into a land like your own, a land of olive oil and honey - a land of grain and new wine, bread and grapes..."
1. Book of Chronicles
Throughout the chapter, David's making the temple functional, his role in organizing the worship system, the duties of the army and the Israelite nobles in the state administration are explained. Throughout the chapter, there is information about who was responsible for what regarding the collection, storage and use of olive oil in the temple. The process of state formation accelerated, society began to become richer, and social relations began to be organized by law. Historically, this process would continue for a while after Solomon took his father's place.
2. Book of Chronicles
2. Book of Chronicles
In this section, where the actions taken by his son Solomon, who continued the temple construction process started by David, are included; the details of the aid he requested from the Phoenician king Hiram for wood, metal and fabric workmanship, and the payment of the laborers' wages and the trees cut and brought from the Phoenician region with olive oil are narrated. In that period, when money (it would be more accurate to call it coin) had not yet been discovered, olive oil was an object that functioned like money.
The period of King Ahaz's rule is described as a period in which the devotion to monotheism decreased and tolerance for pagan beliefs increased. Political events such as conflicts within the palace and the killing of soldiers continued. Olive oil was applied to the wounds of those injured during the fighting. While it is written in the beginning of the Bible that only the king chosen by God could apply olive oil to his skin, in this section olive oil also began to be used as a therapeutic object. It is likely that by this period in history olive cultivation had grown and it was now possible to obtain and store enough oil for everyone to use.
After these events, King Hezekiah, who is known in Jewish history as the "second Solomon", is remembered especially for his religious practices. The conflicts ended, agriculture and animal husbandry were resumed, many products, including olive oil, began to arrive at the palace, and the state order was reestablished.
Book of Ezra
The Israelites returned from the Babylonian exile but were still living under Persian rule. The rebuilding of the destroyed temple began under the leadership of King Ezra. As before, they received material and labor support from the Phoenicians, and in return they gave olive oil. It is understood that the Persian kings under whose rule they lived tolerated the beliefs and religious practices of the Israelites, and even tolerated the provision of abundant olive oil for offerings to the priests working in the temple.
Book of Nehemiah
In the 8:15 section, where the story of the people returning to their holy lands approximately a hundred years after the Babylonian exile and starting a new life in unity and solidarity is told, olive branches are a sacred material used in the construction of booths under which the people will hold celebrations and ceremonies; "Let this announcement be made in all the cities and in Jerusalem: 'Go up to the mountains and bring branches of olive, oleaster, myrtle, palm, and branches of thick-leaved trees to make booths, according to what is written in the law.'"
In the verses of Nehemiah 5:11, the class discrimination among the people of Israel and the situation of the Jewish people who were enslaved due to the negative economic conditions are told. Probably the inadequacy of agricultural products caused the sharing fights; "Brothers, my men and I are lending money and wheat to the people. Please let's stop taking interest! Give them back their fields, vineyards, olive groves, and houses immediately. Also give one percent of the silver, wheat, new wine, and olive oil you took as interest."
King Nehemiah takes action to establish peace between the noble/priestly and wealthy Jews and the lower class Jews, and to eliminate corruption and injustice; 10:37 "We will bring the first of our dough, the first of our harvest, the fruit of all our trees, our new wine, and our olive oil to the storehouses of the Temple of our God and give them to the priests. We will give the tenth of our land to the Levites, for they collect the tithes in all the cities where we work." It is understood that the Levites were the elite Jewish nobles who were particularly responsible for temple work, who could read and write; 10:37 "We will bring the first of our dough, the first of our harvest, the fruit of all our trees, our new wine, and our olive oil to the storehouses of the Temple of our God and give them to the priests. We will give the tenth of our land to the Levites, for they collect the tithes in all the cities where we work." This section details how much the priestly class, known as the Levites, would receive as a share of the olive oil and other agricultural products produced. This practice is similar to the taxes collected by today's states. As can be understood from the statements in 10:39, it explains how the products collected under the name of gift will be stored, and it is stated that the responsibility of bringing products for the temple will be taken under surveillance, and then it is stated in 13:12 that the people consented to this. These actions seem to be the beginning of the process towards statehood.
In Nehemiah 8:1, not only olives but also other trees are mentioned during the celebration of the Feast of Tabernacles; "... Let this announcement be made in all the cities and in Jerusalem: "Go up to the mountains and bring branches of olive, oleaster, myrtle, palm, and branches of thick-leaved trees to make booths, according to what is written in the law." All of these trees are sacred trees cultivated by different peoples of that time. Gathering from the mountains seems like a commandment given with the aim of using wild trees that have no economic value during the celebration.
Book of Job
Chapters 15 and 24 of the Book of Job contain the dialogues of one skeptical consciousness that rebels against God and the other that opposes Him.
15:33 The phrase "He will shed his grapes like a vine, and scatter his flowers like an olive tree" is a description of what will happen to those who question belief in God. The narratives in this section of the book begin with wise poetic narratives written about the skepticism and insatiability in human nature, and end with examples of what can happen to wicked and faithless people. In a year with abundant flowering, it is enough for 2% of the flowers on the tree to turn into olives for the yield to be high. The phrase "He will scatter his flowers like an olive tree" is like a description of a poor year in which not even 2% of the flowers remain on the tree. This possibility also occurs every 3-4 years in today's modern conditions.
God does not take action to eliminate existing evil. The expression in 24:11, "They are crushing olives among the terraces, and pressing grapes for wine, while they are parched with thirst" is like a description of the situation of the poor and lower class people who were forced to work in olive and grape farming for subsistence -probably among them were people belonging to the slave class, which was considered normal at that time-. This situation continues unchanged today, and those who work in the olive picking business during harvest time are the poor, immigrants and poor peasants of the lowest class of the urban population.
The 29th chapter of Job is a kind of lament; it consists of words that are put into words in a monologue style but whose addressee is God. The following expression in the first chapter, which describes the happy and wealthy days of old, is the strongest expression of this: "The days when my paths were washed with milk, when the rock next to me would pour olive oil!..." In a period when the harvested olives were crushed in stone mortars to obtain olive oil, the idea of "olive oil flowing from the rock" is not so unreasonable.
The period of King Ahaz's rule is described as a period in which the devotion to monotheism decreased and tolerance for pagan beliefs increased. Political events such as conflicts within the palace and the killing of soldiers continued. Olive oil was applied to the wounds of those injured during the fighting. While it is written in the beginning of the Bible that only the king chosen by God could apply olive oil to his skin, in this section olive oil also began to be used as a therapeutic object. It is likely that by this period in history olive cultivation had grown and it was now possible to obtain and store enough oil for everyone to use.
After these events, King Hezekiah, who is known in Jewish history as the "second Solomon", is remembered especially for his religious practices. The conflicts ended, agriculture and animal husbandry were resumed, many products, including olive oil, began to arrive at the palace, and the state order was reestablished.
Book of Ezra
The Israelites returned from the Babylonian exile but were still living under Persian rule. The rebuilding of the destroyed temple began under the leadership of King Ezra. As before, they received material and labor support from the Phoenicians, and in return they gave olive oil. It is understood that the Persian kings under whose rule they lived tolerated the beliefs and religious practices of the Israelites, and even tolerated the provision of abundant olive oil for offerings to the priests working in the temple.
Book of Nehemiah
In the 8:15 section, where the story of the people returning to their holy lands approximately a hundred years after the Babylonian exile and starting a new life in unity and solidarity is told, olive branches are a sacred material used in the construction of booths under which the people will hold celebrations and ceremonies; "Let this announcement be made in all the cities and in Jerusalem: 'Go up to the mountains and bring branches of olive, oleaster, myrtle, palm, and branches of thick-leaved trees to make booths, according to what is written in the law.'"
In the verses of Nehemiah 5:11, the class discrimination among the people of Israel and the situation of the Jewish people who were enslaved due to the negative economic conditions are told. Probably the inadequacy of agricultural products caused the sharing fights; "Brothers, my men and I are lending money and wheat to the people. Please let's stop taking interest! Give them back their fields, vineyards, olive groves, and houses immediately. Also give one percent of the silver, wheat, new wine, and olive oil you took as interest."
King Nehemiah takes action to establish peace between the noble/priestly and wealthy Jews and the lower class Jews, and to eliminate corruption and injustice; 10:37 "We will bring the first of our dough, the first of our harvest, the fruit of all our trees, our new wine, and our olive oil to the storehouses of the Temple of our God and give them to the priests. We will give the tenth of our land to the Levites, for they collect the tithes in all the cities where we work." It is understood that the Levites were the elite Jewish nobles who were particularly responsible for temple work, who could read and write; 10:37 "We will bring the first of our dough, the first of our harvest, the fruit of all our trees, our new wine, and our olive oil to the storehouses of the Temple of our God and give them to the priests. We will give the tenth of our land to the Levites, for they collect the tithes in all the cities where we work." This section details how much the priestly class, known as the Levites, would receive as a share of the olive oil and other agricultural products produced. This practice is similar to the taxes collected by today's states. As can be understood from the statements in 10:39, it explains how the products collected under the name of gift will be stored, and it is stated that the responsibility of bringing products for the temple will be taken under surveillance, and then it is stated in 13:12 that the people consented to this. These actions seem to be the beginning of the process towards statehood.
In Nehemiah 8:1, not only olives but also other trees are mentioned during the celebration of the Feast of Tabernacles; "... Let this announcement be made in all the cities and in Jerusalem: "Go up to the mountains and bring branches of olive, oleaster, myrtle, palm, and branches of thick-leaved trees to make booths, according to what is written in the law." All of these trees are sacred trees cultivated by different peoples of that time. Gathering from the mountains seems like a commandment given with the aim of using wild trees that have no economic value during the celebration.
Book of Job
Chapters 15 and 24 of the Book of Job contain the dialogues of one skeptical consciousness that rebels against God and the other that opposes Him.
15:33 The phrase "He will shed his grapes like a vine, and scatter his flowers like an olive tree" is a description of what will happen to those who question belief in God. The narratives in this section of the book begin with wise poetic narratives written about the skepticism and insatiability in human nature, and end with examples of what can happen to wicked and faithless people. In a year with abundant flowering, it is enough for 2% of the flowers on the tree to turn into olives for the yield to be high. The phrase "He will scatter his flowers like an olive tree" is like a description of a poor year in which not even 2% of the flowers remain on the tree. This possibility also occurs every 3-4 years in today's modern conditions.
God does not take action to eliminate existing evil. The expression in 24:11, "They are crushing olives among the terraces, and pressing grapes for wine, while they are parched with thirst" is like a description of the situation of the poor and lower class people who were forced to work in olive and grape farming for subsistence -probably among them were people belonging to the slave class, which was considered normal at that time-. This situation continues unchanged today, and those who work in the olive picking business during harvest time are the poor, immigrants and poor peasants of the lowest class of the urban population.
The 29th chapter of Job is a kind of lament; it consists of words that are put into words in a monologue style but whose addressee is God. The following expression in the first chapter, which describes the happy and wealthy days of old, is the strongest expression of this: "The days when my paths were washed with milk, when the rock next to me would pour olive oil!..." In a period when the harvested olives were crushed in stone mortars to obtain olive oil, the idea of "olive oil flowing from the rock" is not so unreasonable.
Book of Psalms
Psalms are poetic suras sung as hymns by a lute or by someone with a beautiful voice. The opening lines seem to herald a messiah from the lineage of David.
Prophet David - as the one anointed by God - likens himself to an olive tree; "But I am like a green olive tree in the house of God; in the mercy of God I trust always and forever" (Psalm 52:8).
In the legends, David is described as a short boy who shepherded sheep and treated even the sheep fairly. When the horn of oil was placed on his head, the oil started to boil, which is evidence that God had chosen him as king. The expression "You made me as strong as a wild ox and poured fresh oil on my head" in verse 92:10 is also an indication of this. David was probably a just male priest king and an experienced administrator. He centralized his power by making Jerusalem the capital and developed his military organization. While governing the state, he primarily administered justice and personally tried the cases. When the Israelites adopted a fully settled city life and strengthened the state, David seems to have put both his temple, which was his home, and the administration of the kingdom in a certain order. It is also described in detail in the Quran that he systematized the worship and established a standing army.
In verse 15 of the 104th Psalm, where the power that created the physical world is described, the glory of God is expressed through agricultural products: "You always give the wine that makes their hearts glad, the olive oil that makes their faces smile, the bread that increases their strength."
In the verses of Psalms 128:1-4, where the family is discussed, the children in the family are compared to olive shoots; "Your wife will be like a fruitful vine in her house; your children like olive shoots around the table." The olive is a tree that regularly sprouts from the lower part of the trunk where it emerges from the soil every summer. If the trunk and upper branches die or are cut from the part close to the soil when there is a disease, some of these live shoots have the capacity to form a new trunk. In addition; growing an olive tree from an olive seedling is a long-term endeavor that takes years, requires labor and patience. Therefore, it is logical to compare children to olive shoots. In addition; olives, like other fruits, cannot be consumed immediately after being plucked from the branch; they are subjected to different treatments to give them flavor and require time and labor to be consumed. In the same section, women are compared to vines, as a wife and a woman. A people with a migratory past now seem to have adapted to the settled culture. In many parts of the book, the olive is the symbol of wealth and abundance, therefore, in the following parts of the book, the disasters that befall the people and the punishments of the Creator will also be described through olives.
Proverbs of Solomon
This section is full of conceptual expressions about man, composed by a wise consciousness, written in a poetic style; 5:3 "The lips of an adulteress drip honey, her mouth is softer than olive oil."
However, the statement 21:17 "He who is addicted to pleasures will become poor, and he who is addicted to wine and oil will not become rich" and the statement three lines later in 21:20 "The house of the wise is full of valuables and oil, but the foolish squanders his wealth" seem to contradict each other.
Psalms are poetic suras sung as hymns by a lute or by someone with a beautiful voice. The opening lines seem to herald a messiah from the lineage of David.
Prophet David - as the one anointed by God - likens himself to an olive tree; "But I am like a green olive tree in the house of God; in the mercy of God I trust always and forever" (Psalm 52:8).
In the legends, David is described as a short boy who shepherded sheep and treated even the sheep fairly. When the horn of oil was placed on his head, the oil started to boil, which is evidence that God had chosen him as king. The expression "You made me as strong as a wild ox and poured fresh oil on my head" in verse 92:10 is also an indication of this. David was probably a just male priest king and an experienced administrator. He centralized his power by making Jerusalem the capital and developed his military organization. While governing the state, he primarily administered justice and personally tried the cases. When the Israelites adopted a fully settled city life and strengthened the state, David seems to have put both his temple, which was his home, and the administration of the kingdom in a certain order. It is also described in detail in the Quran that he systematized the worship and established a standing army.
In verse 15 of the 104th Psalm, where the power that created the physical world is described, the glory of God is expressed through agricultural products: "You always give the wine that makes their hearts glad, the olive oil that makes their faces smile, the bread that increases their strength."
In the verses of Psalms 128:1-4, where the family is discussed, the children in the family are compared to olive shoots; "Your wife will be like a fruitful vine in her house; your children like olive shoots around the table." The olive is a tree that regularly sprouts from the lower part of the trunk where it emerges from the soil every summer. If the trunk and upper branches die or are cut from the part close to the soil when there is a disease, some of these live shoots have the capacity to form a new trunk. In addition; growing an olive tree from an olive seedling is a long-term endeavor that takes years, requires labor and patience. Therefore, it is logical to compare children to olive shoots. In addition; olives, like other fruits, cannot be consumed immediately after being plucked from the branch; they are subjected to different treatments to give them flavor and require time and labor to be consumed. In the same section, women are compared to vines, as a wife and a woman. A people with a migratory past now seem to have adapted to the settled culture. In many parts of the book, the olive is the symbol of wealth and abundance, therefore, in the following parts of the book, the disasters that befall the people and the punishments of the Creator will also be described through olives.
Proverbs of Solomon
This section is full of conceptual expressions about man, composed by a wise consciousness, written in a poetic style; 5:3 "The lips of an adulteress drip honey, her mouth is softer than olive oil."
However, the statement 21:17 "He who is addicted to pleasures will become poor, and he who is addicted to wine and oil will not become rich" and the statement three lines later in 21:20 "The house of the wise is full of valuables and oil, but the foolish squanders his wealth" seem to contradict each other.
The Book of Ecclesiastes
The words in the verses of Chapter 9, where olive oil is mentioned, include questions and proverbs about the meaning of life. The expression "May your clothes be always white. May olive oil never run out of your head" in verses 9:8 means may there be no shortage of celebrations and joys.
The Book of Isaiah
In the 6th verse of Isaiah chapter 17 (God Will Punish Aram and Israel), the results of God's anger are described through the olive; "...very few will be saved, the remnant will be like an olive tree whose top is beaten and four or five olives remain on its branches..." Expressions that describe what will happen to the people when the Creator's laws are not followed and how they will be destroyed are also present in the 13th verse of Isaiah chapter 24 (The Lord Will Punish the Earth): "For as the tree that is beaten to drop the olives, as the grapes that remain after the harvest, so will all the nations of the earth be." Until yesterday, olive harvesting was done by hitting the branches, especially those with high branches, with long sticks. This practice damaged the branches and caused a decrease in the harvest the following year. Nowadays, trees are pruned to prevent branches from reaching upwards, and harvesting is done by hand or machine, thus preventing damage to the branches.
Book of Jeremiah
Chapter 11 (The Covenant is Broken) describes how the people who break their promises to the Creator and return to their old polytheistic beliefs will be punished. In verse 11:16, God speaks to the prophet Jeremiah: "The Lord has called you an olive tree, beautiful in fruit and form, with many leaves. But when a strong storm comes, it will set the tree on fire, and its branches will break."
This section, which describes a period of defeat and disintegration that ended with the Babylonian exile, seems to have been written from the mouth of the prophet Jeremiah. It also contains words that seem to have been written to comfort the exiled people after the exile, that God will bring happiness and watch over the fragmented people of Israel in the future, and that give hope to all the people of Israel. The sentences containing "olive oil" in the verses are expressions of wealth, prosperity and joy.
The Book of Ezekiel
The 16th chapter consists of statements written about the past of the people of the city, which was considered a royal city representing all of Israel, which is today's Jerusalem and was then Jerusalem, and the subsequent infidelities. In more than one verse, olive oil is used as an object of blessing, blessing and food, and an object of offering. In the 46th chapter, the amount of olive oil to be used in offerings and worship is described in detail, with a unit of measurement given.
The Book of Hosea
14:6 (The Lord Gives Hope to Israel); ...They will branch out, their splendor will resemble the olive tree, and their scent will resemble the cedar of Lebanon... These lines are like the description of the goodness and promises coming from God through the two trees with the highest material and spiritual value in the region at that time. The scent of the cedar tree is also mentioned in Hittite written texts; "smell the sweet scent of the cedar tree". The Hittite people used the tree as incense in religious rituals and mixed the gum they obtained from the tree with wine.
The cedar tree is a symbol of power, greatness, strength, glory and honor, authority, spirituality, appreciation, strength and wealth in the holy books. The word originates from the French word "cèdre". The French word comes from the Ancient Greek word "kédros", which means the same thing. It is thought that in ancient times, the Greek people learned the cedar tree from the Phoenicians. The reason for this is that the geography where the tree was most abundant in those times was the Eastern Mediterranean coast of today's Lebanon. The most important export product for the Phoenicians, who were known as brave merchant sailors, was the cedar tree. It is pronounced as "kedron" in New Greek. Its Latin equivalent is "cedrus" and it is a male name. It is thought that the word "power" used today comes from the same root. The cedar tree is one of the ancient trees of the Mediterranean geography, along with the olive tree. In a symbolic sense, in contrast to the olive, which is a symbol of femininity, it is often identified with a "masculine" power that is powerful, law-making, judging and appreciating. Cedar trees, which were used in the construction of monumental tombs, temples and palaces, goods, war and trade ships during our civilization history, and in the construction of the Hejaz railway during the Ottoman Empire, are now on the verge of extinction compared to those times. Cedar trees in Lebanon have been protected and have become one of the symbols on the country's flag. One in every 46 trees in Anatolia is a cedar tree, and they are under threat from mining and marble quarries. It is known that coffins for mummies were made from this tree and the white resin of the tree was used in the mummification process. Unfortunately; it is still used in coffin production.
Book of Amos
Chapter 4, verse 9; "I punished you with samyeli and mildew; I destroyed your vineyards and your gardens, your fig and olive trees, and the locusts devoured them; yet you did not return to me, says the Lord." Throughout the chapter, examples from the past are given to the people who returned to their old polytheistic beliefs, and it is explained what the single, absolute power, all-powerful God has done in the past and what he can do in the future.
The Book of Joel
The book begins with the invasion of African and Middle Eastern locusts, described as the most destructive migratory insects on earth. The invasion is a natural phenomenon that threatens food security in our age and is expected to worsen due to climate change. Joel 1:10 "The fields are devastated, the ground is bitter, for the grain is ruined, the new wine is gone, the olive oil is gone."
After the invasion is over, God speaks to his repentant people; Joel 2:19 "Behold, I will give you grain, new wine and oil, and you will be satisfied with them. I will not let the nations humiliate you anymore." , Joel 2:24 "The threshing floor will be full of grain, and the vats of wine and oil will overflow.".
The Book of Micah
Chapter 6, "The Judgement of the Lord," verse 7: "If I offer a thousand rams, if I pour out ten thousand streams of oil, will it please the Lord? If I give my firstborn son for my iniquity, the fruit of my body for my sin?
The "Judgement of the Lord" section consists of expressions expressing the greatness of the desire for forgiveness. Even the ancient option of human sacrifice (the firstborn son) for forgiveness is mentioned. In the next verse, 8, we understand what God wants "...But that you should act justly, and love faithfulness, and walk humbly in His ways"
The words in the verses of Chapter 9, where olive oil is mentioned, include questions and proverbs about the meaning of life. The expression "May your clothes be always white. May olive oil never run out of your head" in verses 9:8 means may there be no shortage of celebrations and joys.
The Book of Isaiah
In the 6th verse of Isaiah chapter 17 (God Will Punish Aram and Israel), the results of God's anger are described through the olive; "...very few will be saved, the remnant will be like an olive tree whose top is beaten and four or five olives remain on its branches..." Expressions that describe what will happen to the people when the Creator's laws are not followed and how they will be destroyed are also present in the 13th verse of Isaiah chapter 24 (The Lord Will Punish the Earth): "For as the tree that is beaten to drop the olives, as the grapes that remain after the harvest, so will all the nations of the earth be." Until yesterday, olive harvesting was done by hitting the branches, especially those with high branches, with long sticks. This practice damaged the branches and caused a decrease in the harvest the following year. Nowadays, trees are pruned to prevent branches from reaching upwards, and harvesting is done by hand or machine, thus preventing damage to the branches.
Book of Jeremiah
Chapter 11 (The Covenant is Broken) describes how the people who break their promises to the Creator and return to their old polytheistic beliefs will be punished. In verse 11:16, God speaks to the prophet Jeremiah: "The Lord has called you an olive tree, beautiful in fruit and form, with many leaves. But when a strong storm comes, it will set the tree on fire, and its branches will break."
This section, which describes a period of defeat and disintegration that ended with the Babylonian exile, seems to have been written from the mouth of the prophet Jeremiah. It also contains words that seem to have been written to comfort the exiled people after the exile, that God will bring happiness and watch over the fragmented people of Israel in the future, and that give hope to all the people of Israel. The sentences containing "olive oil" in the verses are expressions of wealth, prosperity and joy.
The Book of Ezekiel
The 16th chapter consists of statements written about the past of the people of the city, which was considered a royal city representing all of Israel, which is today's Jerusalem and was then Jerusalem, and the subsequent infidelities. In more than one verse, olive oil is used as an object of blessing, blessing and food, and an object of offering. In the 46th chapter, the amount of olive oil to be used in offerings and worship is described in detail, with a unit of measurement given.
The Book of Hosea
14:6 (The Lord Gives Hope to Israel); ...They will branch out, their splendor will resemble the olive tree, and their scent will resemble the cedar of Lebanon... These lines are like the description of the goodness and promises coming from God through the two trees with the highest material and spiritual value in the region at that time. The scent of the cedar tree is also mentioned in Hittite written texts; "smell the sweet scent of the cedar tree". The Hittite people used the tree as incense in religious rituals and mixed the gum they obtained from the tree with wine.
The cedar tree is a symbol of power, greatness, strength, glory and honor, authority, spirituality, appreciation, strength and wealth in the holy books. The word originates from the French word "cèdre". The French word comes from the Ancient Greek word "kédros", which means the same thing. It is thought that in ancient times, the Greek people learned the cedar tree from the Phoenicians. The reason for this is that the geography where the tree was most abundant in those times was the Eastern Mediterranean coast of today's Lebanon. The most important export product for the Phoenicians, who were known as brave merchant sailors, was the cedar tree. It is pronounced as "kedron" in New Greek. Its Latin equivalent is "cedrus" and it is a male name. It is thought that the word "power" used today comes from the same root. The cedar tree is one of the ancient trees of the Mediterranean geography, along with the olive tree. In a symbolic sense, in contrast to the olive, which is a symbol of femininity, it is often identified with a "masculine" power that is powerful, law-making, judging and appreciating. Cedar trees, which were used in the construction of monumental tombs, temples and palaces, goods, war and trade ships during our civilization history, and in the construction of the Hejaz railway during the Ottoman Empire, are now on the verge of extinction compared to those times. Cedar trees in Lebanon have been protected and have become one of the symbols on the country's flag. One in every 46 trees in Anatolia is a cedar tree, and they are under threat from mining and marble quarries. It is known that coffins for mummies were made from this tree and the white resin of the tree was used in the mummification process. Unfortunately; it is still used in coffin production.
Book of Amos
Chapter 4, verse 9; "I punished you with samyeli and mildew; I destroyed your vineyards and your gardens, your fig and olive trees, and the locusts devoured them; yet you did not return to me, says the Lord." Throughout the chapter, examples from the past are given to the people who returned to their old polytheistic beliefs, and it is explained what the single, absolute power, all-powerful God has done in the past and what he can do in the future.
The Book of Joel
The book begins with the invasion of African and Middle Eastern locusts, described as the most destructive migratory insects on earth. The invasion is a natural phenomenon that threatens food security in our age and is expected to worsen due to climate change. Joel 1:10 "The fields are devastated, the ground is bitter, for the grain is ruined, the new wine is gone, the olive oil is gone."
After the invasion is over, God speaks to his repentant people; Joel 2:19 "Behold, I will give you grain, new wine and oil, and you will be satisfied with them. I will not let the nations humiliate you anymore." , Joel 2:24 "The threshing floor will be full of grain, and the vats of wine and oil will overflow.".
The Book of Micah
Chapter 6, "The Judgement of the Lord," verse 7: "If I offer a thousand rams, if I pour out ten thousand streams of oil, will it please the Lord? If I give my firstborn son for my iniquity, the fruit of my body for my sin?
The "Judgement of the Lord" section consists of expressions expressing the greatness of the desire for forgiveness. Even the ancient option of human sacrifice (the firstborn son) for forgiveness is mentioned. In the next verse, 8, we understand what God wants "...But that you should act justly, and love faithfulness, and walk humbly in His ways"
What did the Lord your God require of you?
The words "You shall sow, but shall not reap. You shall tread the olives, but shall not apply the oil. You shall press the grapes, but shall not drink the wine" in verse 15 of the same chapter, "The Crime and Punishment of Jerusalem", are an expression of God's anger at the sage and one of the punishments he deems appropriate.
The Book of Habakkuk
The book begins with "Habakkuk's Complaint to the Lord". It is claimed that Habakkuk, one of the twelve minor prophets in the history of religions, lived in the 7th century BC. It is thought that he was a temple musician and priest. The book, which consists of three parts, is about the dialogue between God and Habakkuk. It is thought that the name Habakkuk is derived from the Hebrew root havak, meaning embrace, or from the Akkadian plant hambakuku. The first part talks about the corruption of society, their disobedience to God's commands, and their punishment for this. Historically, this period coincides with the Babylonian exile, which will be followed by the Babylonian occupation. The olive tree is mentioned in the 17th part of the 3rd part of the book: "... Even if the fig trees do not bud, the vines do not bear grapes, the labor given to the olives is in vain, even if the fields do not yield, the sheep pens are empty, and there are no cattle in the stables..." There is consensus that the statements in this section are the results of the Babylonian exile. This section is a temple prayer performed in the temple with the accompaniment of musical instruments.
The Book of Haggai
It is thought to have been written after the Babylonian exile - around 500 BC. The exile had ended, and God had announced fertile days through Haggai. Haggai, who is thought to be one of the twelve minor prophets, has a name derived from the Hebrew root hgg, meaning "to make a pilgrimage", and it is thought that Haggai worked to rebuild the Jerusalem temple after the exile.
The words "You shall sow, but shall not reap. You shall tread the olives, but shall not apply the oil. You shall press the grapes, but shall not drink the wine" in verse 15 of the same chapter, "The Crime and Punishment of Jerusalem", are an expression of God's anger at the sage and one of the punishments he deems appropriate.
The Book of Habakkuk
The book begins with "Habakkuk's Complaint to the Lord". It is claimed that Habakkuk, one of the twelve minor prophets in the history of religions, lived in the 7th century BC. It is thought that he was a temple musician and priest. The book, which consists of three parts, is about the dialogue between God and Habakkuk. It is thought that the name Habakkuk is derived from the Hebrew root havak, meaning embrace, or from the Akkadian plant hambakuku. The first part talks about the corruption of society, their disobedience to God's commands, and their punishment for this. Historically, this period coincides with the Babylonian exile, which will be followed by the Babylonian occupation. The olive tree is mentioned in the 17th part of the 3rd part of the book: "... Even if the fig trees do not bud, the vines do not bear grapes, the labor given to the olives is in vain, even if the fields do not yield, the sheep pens are empty, and there are no cattle in the stables..." There is consensus that the statements in this section are the results of the Babylonian exile. This section is a temple prayer performed in the temple with the accompaniment of musical instruments.
The Book of Haggai
It is thought to have been written after the Babylonian exile - around 500 BC. The exile had ended, and God had announced fertile days through Haggai. Haggai, who is thought to be one of the twelve minor prophets, has a name derived from the Hebrew root hgg, meaning "to make a pilgrimage", and it is thought that Haggai worked to rebuild the Jerusalem temple after the exile.
In the introduction of the book, God asks the people returning from exile to work primarily on the construction of a temple, not on their own individual works. If they do not do so, He reminds them of how He punished them in the past in the 1st chapter, 11th verse of the book with the following words: "I punished the land with drought - its mountains, its grain, its new wine, its olive oil, the produce of the earth, its people, its animals, all the work of your hands."
Chapter 2, verse 12 is a reminder and warning to the people about God's laws; "If someone carries consecrated meat in the folds of his garments, and the fold touches bread, or meat, or wine, or oil, or any other food, is that food holy?" The priests answered, "No." If the people did not bring a portion of the harvest to the priests as a tax for the construction of the temple, or if, for example, every animal and agricultural product consumed in the temple was not blessed, then the people were unclean in the eyes of God.
Verse 18 of chapter 2 seems to be associated with the olive season, “From this day onwards, the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month, the day the foundation of the temple of the LORD is laid, consider the things that will happen.” Verse 19, which immediately follows, is God’s promise of a bountiful harvest season if the temple work begins; “Is there any seed left in the barn? Has the vine, the fig, the pomegranate, the olive tree ever produced? ‘From this day onwards I will shower you with blessings.’”
The Book of Zechariah
In the first chapters of the book, it is realized that God no longer speaks directly to holy people (messiah or priest/oracle) but begins to communicate through angels. The idea of angels is a concept whose foundations date back to the period of polytheistic belief, and which has not disappeared from human consciousness but has been transformed by pagan consciousness.
It is possible that some of those who returned after the exile had assimilated and tended to return to their old pagan beliefs, or that the people living in the cities they returned to already had polytheistic pagan beliefs and behaviors.
The fourth section of the book (Fifth Vision: The Lampstand and the Olive Trees), which is understood to have been documented after the Babylonian exile, contains symbolic narratives, most of which are depicted through the olive tree and olive oil. Those who returned to the holy lands seem to have assimilated to the point of forgetting the sacred meanings of the olive tree and olive oil and to have returned to their old polytheistic beliefs;
Chapter 2, verse 12 is a reminder and warning to the people about God's laws; "If someone carries consecrated meat in the folds of his garments, and the fold touches bread, or meat, or wine, or oil, or any other food, is that food holy?" The priests answered, "No." If the people did not bring a portion of the harvest to the priests as a tax for the construction of the temple, or if, for example, every animal and agricultural product consumed in the temple was not blessed, then the people were unclean in the eyes of God.
Verse 18 of chapter 2 seems to be associated with the olive season, “From this day onwards, the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month, the day the foundation of the temple of the LORD is laid, consider the things that will happen.” Verse 19, which immediately follows, is God’s promise of a bountiful harvest season if the temple work begins; “Is there any seed left in the barn? Has the vine, the fig, the pomegranate, the olive tree ever produced? ‘From this day onwards I will shower you with blessings.’”
The Book of Zechariah
In the first chapters of the book, it is realized that God no longer speaks directly to holy people (messiah or priest/oracle) but begins to communicate through angels. The idea of angels is a concept whose foundations date back to the period of polytheistic belief, and which has not disappeared from human consciousness but has been transformed by pagan consciousness.
It is possible that some of those who returned after the exile had assimilated and tended to return to their old pagan beliefs, or that the people living in the cities they returned to already had polytheistic pagan beliefs and behaviors.
The fourth section of the book (Fifth Vision: The Lampstand and the Olive Trees), which is understood to have been documented after the Babylonian exile, contains symbolic narratives, most of which are depicted through the olive tree and olive oil. Those who returned to the holy lands seem to have assimilated to the point of forgetting the sacred meanings of the olive tree and olive oil and to have returned to their old polytheistic beliefs;
"The angel who spoke to me came again and woke me as if from sleep. "What do you see?" he asked. "I see a lampstand of solid gold," I replied. "On top of it is a bowl for olive oil, with seven lamps on it, and each lamp has seven spouts. Also next to the lampstand are two olive trees, one to the right of the bowl of olive oil, the other to the left." I asked the angel who spoke to me, "What is the meaning of these, sir?" The angel replied, "Don't you know what these mean?" I said, "No, sir."
These expressions used in the 4th section are like the conflict between the monotheistic belief that existed in the people's thoughts and the old pagan beliefs. The Temple of Solomon was destroyed, a new temple had to be built in its place, and the pagan temples and the polytheistic pagan religious consciousness had to be destroyed as well. The construction of the temple began under the leadership of King Zerubbabel; "...Who are you, O mighty mountain? You will be a plain before Zerubbabel! When he takes out the last stone of the temple, the people will shout, 'How beautiful, how beautiful!'..." The people with anthropomorphic polytheistic beliefs believed that the gods lived on top of a sacred mountain. The location of the mountain mentioned here is not documented in the book. A similar mountain expression related to olives is also found in the Quran, and this mountain is thought to be Mount Sinai. In the book, the stones used in the construction of the temple are made of stones from the sacred mountain in question, and an allegory is made that the mountain will be destroyed and the gods of the old beliefs will be destroyed.
The light emitted from the seven-branched candelabrum, which uses olive oil as fuel, is likened to the "eyes of God" as a symbol of illumination and the watchful creator. A similar depiction of a creator God would appear centuries later in the famous Nur sura of the Holy Quran.
These expressions used in the 4th section are like the conflict between the monotheistic belief that existed in the people's thoughts and the old pagan beliefs. The Temple of Solomon was destroyed, a new temple had to be built in its place, and the pagan temples and the polytheistic pagan religious consciousness had to be destroyed as well. The construction of the temple began under the leadership of King Zerubbabel; "...Who are you, O mighty mountain? You will be a plain before Zerubbabel! When he takes out the last stone of the temple, the people will shout, 'How beautiful, how beautiful!'..." The people with anthropomorphic polytheistic beliefs believed that the gods lived on top of a sacred mountain. The location of the mountain mentioned here is not documented in the book. A similar mountain expression related to olives is also found in the Quran, and this mountain is thought to be Mount Sinai. In the book, the stones used in the construction of the temple are made of stones from the sacred mountain in question, and an allegory is made that the mountain will be destroyed and the gods of the old beliefs will be destroyed.
The light emitted from the seven-branched candelabrum, which uses olive oil as fuel, is likened to the "eyes of God" as a symbol of illumination and the watchful creator. A similar depiction of a creator God would appear centuries later in the famous Nur sura of the Holy Quran.
The expression in verse 4:14, "The angel said, 'These are two men, anointed with olive oil, who serve the Lord of the whole earth,'" is like a reference to the old gods who created the olive tree in myths, which is a remnant of pagan beliefs. In the religious consciousness of the people, the old pagan gods seem to have evolved into the position of two servants of the Jewish god, anointed with olive oil. Another interpretation is that these two men are Zerubbabel, a descendant of David, and Joshua, the priest. The two leaders, who have the power and holiness symbolized by olive oil and the olive tree, will rebuild the temple with the power given by the Lord.
The last chapter of the book of Zechariah (Chapter 14, The Coming and Kingdom of the Messiah) describes the events that will take place in Jerusalem (modern-day Jerusalem), almost a kind of apocalypse will occur, after which the Messiah (the prophet of the apocalypse) will establish his dominion over the world as a savior; "On that day His feet will stand on the Mount of Olives east of Jerusalem. The Mount of Olives will split in half to the east and west, forming a great valley. Half of the mountain will move north and the other half to the south." The expressions seem to describe a great earthquake. The mountain located to the east of the city is considered sacred by religious people even today. What is described in this chapter is like the first signs of the idea of the Prophet Jesus, who is believed to have come as a messiah.
Compiled by: Uğur Saraçoğlu ( ugisaracoglu@yahoo.com.tr )
Source:
The last chapter of the book of Zechariah (Chapter 14, The Coming and Kingdom of the Messiah) describes the events that will take place in Jerusalem (modern-day Jerusalem), almost a kind of apocalypse will occur, after which the Messiah (the prophet of the apocalypse) will establish his dominion over the world as a savior; "On that day His feet will stand on the Mount of Olives east of Jerusalem. The Mount of Olives will split in half to the east and west, forming a great valley. Half of the mountain will move north and the other half to the south." The expressions seem to describe a great earthquake. The mountain located to the east of the city is considered sacred by religious people even today. What is described in this chapter is like the first signs of the idea of the Prophet Jesus, who is believed to have come as a messiah.
Compiled by: Uğur Saraçoğlu ( ugisaracoglu@yahoo.com.tr )
Source:
1. https://bilimvegelecek.com.tr/index.php/2011/04/01/erkek-tanrilarin-agaci-sedir/.
2. An investigation on the sacrified animals in the ancient civilizations, Altan Erbutak, Istanbul University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Morphology / Department of Veterinary Medicine History and Deontology, 34850, Avcılar, Istanbul.
3. Ancient Mesopotamian Religious Rituals and Objects Used, Yeşim Dilek, PhD Thesis, Advisor Prof. Dr. Hasan Bahar, TC Selçuk University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of History, 2019.
4. Tax Traces in Holy Books: Torah, Bible and Quran, Aslihan Kuden, Manisa Celal Bayar University (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351481611_Tax_Traces_in_Holy_Books_Torah_Bible_and_Quran_-_Tax_Traces_in_Holy_Books_Torah_Bible_and_Quran).
5. Middle Eastern Mythology, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Palestinian, Hittite, Jewish, Christian Myths, Samuel Henry Hooke, Translated from the original English by Alaeddin Şenel, İmge Bookstore, 1991.
6. History of Religious Beliefs and Thoughts, Volume II, From Gautama Buddha to the Birth of Christianity; Mircae Eliade, 1976, Translator: Ali Berktay, Kabalcı Publishing House, 2000.
7. https://amp.odatv4.com/yazarlar/yusuf-yavuz/sedir-agaclari-nasil-yok-edildi-02102018-192854.
8. https://kutsalkitap.info.tr/
9. Islamic Encyclopedia: https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/davud.