Olive Oil Culture History II - Blessing, Perfume, Medicine and Cosmetic Material
15-04-2025
11:30
Photo; Terracotta Mycenaean jar with stirrup handles, size 8.5 × 12.7 × 12.3 cm, 13th century BC, used for storing/carrying oil or wine, derived from a configuration of two connected handles resembling a double stirrup, source . The form first appears in Minoan pottery from Crete in the 16th century BC, but became one of the most characteristic types of Mycenaean pottery made at the end of the Late Bronze Age.
It is thought that the first scented ointments were obtained by mixing olive and sesame oil with scented plants in the Neolithic Age (7000-4000 BC). Although this claim has not been proven, it suggests that the first use of olive oil obtained from unripe olives may have been in the production of ointments/antique perfumes for the purpose of smelling nice. It is thought that olive oil, which has the ability to lock in odor and not spoil, was used to give a pleasant scent to the body and hair in daily use. The oldest archaeological finding related to perfume production belongs to the Tepe Gawra region in northern Iraq. The region is the geography where the olive tree was domesticated and began to be cultivated. In the excavations carried out in this area northeast of the city of Mosul, ceramic vessels and distillation devices dating back to the end of 5000 BC were found.
The first recorded chemist/perfumer in history was a woman named Tappūtī-Bēlet-ekalle (assistant to the lady of the palace, a woman who makes perfumes, probably a type of palace staff title) in the Assyrian court. The word appears on a cuneiform tablet containing a list of ingredients used in the production of perfumed oils, dated to 1200 BC and is considered the first document recorded regarding distillation. It is understood from the tablets that there were other female perfumers in the Assyrian court, but their names are not fully understood. The perfume depicted in the tablet is an aromatic ointment created by soaking plant materials in a series of oil and water processes.
The olive seed fossil is one of the archaeological findings unearthed in ancient graves and is associated with the sanctity of the olive tree and olive oil. There are many archaeological findings, holy book texts and mythological stories that show that it was used in funeral rituals and in offerings prepared for the gods in temples.
It is thought that the ointments used in religious rituals in ancient times included olive oil, almond oil, sesame oil and castor oil, which have the ability to preserve scent. It is believed that these ointments, which were kept in white marble containers in front of the statues of deities in temples, were used by priests to polish the statues, give the environment a pleasant scent and make the congregation feel like they were in a sacred atmosphere. It is also thought to be a material used in blessing ceremonies.
Over time, ointments began to be used for purposes other than religious purposes, the earliest examples of which are the ancient Egyptian medical manuscripts, the most famous of which are the Ebers and Smith papyrus. According to some, the recipes date back to 2500 BC. They include recipes for medicines that can be described as "ancient recipes" and cosmetics for skin health. It has been understood that inorganic minerals such as salt, as well as various parts of plants and animals, function as active ingredients in the recipes, and substances such as water, olive oil, beeswax, linseed oil, pine turpentine, and wool fat (lanolin) are used as carrier mediums.
It is thought that women had the habit of using olive oil for cosmetic purposes in all the peoples of the ancient Anatolian civilization. In the 3000s BC, when cultural interactions between ancient Near Eastern societies began, it is mentioned that women used to apply pleasant-smelling oils in the adventures of Gilgamesh, the common epic hero of the Mesopotamian peoples (Sumerians, then Assyrians, then Babylonians and Akkadians) and Anatolian peoples (Hurrians and Hittites) in the Fertile Crescent region, in his quest for immortality. It is highly probable that one of the ingredients in the object translated as "oil" on the clay tablets was olive oil. Therefore, it is thought that the habit of applying oil or olive oil was widespread among the nobles in Anatolia before Ancient Greece. Olive farming and olive oil production increased during the Assyrian period, and in the 1950-1750 BC period, cultural interaction would also accelerate through Assyrian merchant families operating trade colonies from Mesopotamia to the interior of Anatolia.
In ancient Egyptian civilization, during funeral ceremonies, the body of the corpse is rubbed with olive oil and wreaths made of olive branches are placed around the neck. The mummies of the 20th Dynasty (1200 to 1090 years ago) are adorned with woven olive branches and crowns. According to anthropologists, choosing to bury the body of a deceased community member instead of leaving it as it is is a behavior dating back to prehistoric times, the oldest action that distinguishes us from our other close human ancestors. The famous pharaoh of ancient Egypt, Tutankhamun, who died as a child, is depicted with a crown made of olive branches. Figures depicting the olive pressing process were found on the walls of the oldest pharaoh pyramid, Saqqara, built in 2500 BC. However, the extent to which olive cultivation was widespread in ancient Egyptian civilization is debatable, and sufficient archaeological evidence has not been found in the region regarding the methods of obtaining olive oil. There is evidence in archaeological tablets that olive oil was imported to Ancient Egypt from Palestine and Syria. It has been found that the most commonly used oil for fragrance is Balanos oil, pressed from aegyptiaca seeds, while fresh raw olive oil and almond oil are thought to be less preferred, perhaps because these two oils are less available as an exported commodity.
The great increase in the production of ointments and scented oil containers during this historical period is also supported by archaeological findings; a perfume distillation workshop from the Early Middle Bronze Age, dated to 1800 BC, located in the city of Pyrgos in Cyprus.
In ancient Greek society, which emerged later in history and whose roots are connected to the Egyptian, Phoenician and Anatolian civilizations, the idea of the "Sacred" was always at the very center of the social and political order. One of the findings unearthed in Hellenistic graves is a small earthenware jar called "unguentarium" (beauty ointment or scent jar). It is known that olive oil and fragrant oils were put in it, as well as tears.
Aphrodite washes her delicate skin well,
It is thought that the first scented ointments were obtained by mixing olive and sesame oil with scented plants in the Neolithic Age (7000-4000 BC). Although this claim has not been proven, it suggests that the first use of olive oil obtained from unripe olives may have been in the production of ointments/antique perfumes for the purpose of smelling nice. It is thought that olive oil, which has the ability to lock in odor and not spoil, was used to give a pleasant scent to the body and hair in daily use. The oldest archaeological finding related to perfume production belongs to the Tepe Gawra region in northern Iraq. The region is the geography where the olive tree was domesticated and began to be cultivated. In the excavations carried out in this area northeast of the city of Mosul, ceramic vessels and distillation devices dating back to the end of 5000 BC were found.
The first recorded chemist/perfumer in history was a woman named Tappūtī-Bēlet-ekalle (assistant to the lady of the palace, a woman who makes perfumes, probably a type of palace staff title) in the Assyrian court. The word appears on a cuneiform tablet containing a list of ingredients used in the production of perfumed oils, dated to 1200 BC and is considered the first document recorded regarding distillation. It is understood from the tablets that there were other female perfumers in the Assyrian court, but their names are not fully understood. The perfume depicted in the tablet is an aromatic ointment created by soaking plant materials in a series of oil and water processes.
The olive seed fossil is one of the archaeological findings unearthed in ancient graves and is associated with the sanctity of the olive tree and olive oil. There are many archaeological findings, holy book texts and mythological stories that show that it was used in funeral rituals and in offerings prepared for the gods in temples.
It is thought that the ointments used in religious rituals in ancient times included olive oil, almond oil, sesame oil and castor oil, which have the ability to preserve scent. It is believed that these ointments, which were kept in white marble containers in front of the statues of deities in temples, were used by priests to polish the statues, give the environment a pleasant scent and make the congregation feel like they were in a sacred atmosphere. It is also thought to be a material used in blessing ceremonies.
Over time, ointments began to be used for purposes other than religious purposes, the earliest examples of which are the ancient Egyptian medical manuscripts, the most famous of which are the Ebers and Smith papyrus. According to some, the recipes date back to 2500 BC. They include recipes for medicines that can be described as "ancient recipes" and cosmetics for skin health. It has been understood that inorganic minerals such as salt, as well as various parts of plants and animals, function as active ingredients in the recipes, and substances such as water, olive oil, beeswax, linseed oil, pine turpentine, and wool fat (lanolin) are used as carrier mediums.
It is thought that women had the habit of using olive oil for cosmetic purposes in all the peoples of the ancient Anatolian civilization. In the 3000s BC, when cultural interactions between ancient Near Eastern societies began, it is mentioned that women used to apply pleasant-smelling oils in the adventures of Gilgamesh, the common epic hero of the Mesopotamian peoples (Sumerians, then Assyrians, then Babylonians and Akkadians) and Anatolian peoples (Hurrians and Hittites) in the Fertile Crescent region, in his quest for immortality. It is highly probable that one of the ingredients in the object translated as "oil" on the clay tablets was olive oil. Therefore, it is thought that the habit of applying oil or olive oil was widespread among the nobles in Anatolia before Ancient Greece. Olive farming and olive oil production increased during the Assyrian period, and in the 1950-1750 BC period, cultural interaction would also accelerate through Assyrian merchant families operating trade colonies from Mesopotamia to the interior of Anatolia.
In ancient Egyptian civilization, during funeral ceremonies, the body of the corpse is rubbed with olive oil and wreaths made of olive branches are placed around the neck. The mummies of the 20th Dynasty (1200 to 1090 years ago) are adorned with woven olive branches and crowns. According to anthropologists, choosing to bury the body of a deceased community member instead of leaving it as it is is a behavior dating back to prehistoric times, the oldest action that distinguishes us from our other close human ancestors. The famous pharaoh of ancient Egypt, Tutankhamun, who died as a child, is depicted with a crown made of olive branches. Figures depicting the olive pressing process were found on the walls of the oldest pharaoh pyramid, Saqqara, built in 2500 BC. However, the extent to which olive cultivation was widespread in ancient Egyptian civilization is debatable, and sufficient archaeological evidence has not been found in the region regarding the methods of obtaining olive oil. There is evidence in archaeological tablets that olive oil was imported to Ancient Egypt from Palestine and Syria. It has been found that the most commonly used oil for fragrance is Balanos oil, pressed from aegyptiaca seeds, while fresh raw olive oil and almond oil are thought to be less preferred, perhaps because these two oils are less available as an exported commodity.
The great increase in the production of ointments and scented oil containers during this historical period is also supported by archaeological findings; a perfume distillation workshop from the Early Middle Bronze Age, dated to 1800 BC, located in the city of Pyrgos in Cyprus.
In ancient Greek society, which emerged later in history and whose roots are connected to the Egyptian, Phoenician and Anatolian civilizations, the idea of the "Sacred" was always at the very center of the social and political order. One of the findings unearthed in Hellenistic graves is a small earthenware jar called "unguentarium" (beauty ointment or scent jar). It is known that olive oil and fragrant oils were put in it, as well as tears.
Aphrodite washes her delicate skin well,
Then he rubs his body with scented oils and lies down.
Hesiod, Works and Days, 8th century BC.
Hesiod, Works and Days, 8th century BC.
"...they took refuge in him with offerings
With animal pictures and fragrant oils..."
Purifications, Empedocles (495 – 435 BC, physician, philosopher, poet)
Purifications, Empedocles (495 – 435 BC, physician, philosopher, poet)
Unguentarium; fusiform (spindle-shaped, water drop) clay vessel, approximately 16 cm, repaired at the junction of the neck and body, found in Turkey, source .
Let's look at the sections where funeral rituals are described in the epics called Iliad and Odyssey, believed to have been written by the ancient Hellen poet and prophet of that era, Homer;
When the water in the bronze cauldron boils,
They washed the dead body and put a bright oil on it.
They filled their wounds with a nine-year-old scented ointment,
Then they laid the dead man on the bed.
Homer, Iliad XVIII, (Funeral ceremonies of Patroclus).
Even the horses of heroic male nobles are anointed with scented oil;
They lost their glorious soft-handed drivers
Homer, Iliad XVIII, (Funeral ceremonies of Patroclus).
Even the horses of heroic male nobles are anointed with scented oil;
They lost their glorious soft-handed drivers
He washed their bodies in white water
Many scented oils had flowed down from their manes.
Homer, Iliad XVIII, (Funeral ceremonies of Patroclus).
The culture of oiling the horses of heroes seems to have continued for a long time; it is known that in the Ottoman Empire, horses and camels were oiled in the stables belonging to the sultan and the sultan's palace, and the olive oil resources of Lesbos were allocated for this purpose.
It is believed that Homer, who recounted the adventures of noble male heroes on horses and pagan gods in anthropomorphic form, was not a single person. There is agreement that the oral storytelling tradition on the shores of the Aegean Sea was written down by more than one person in the mid-6th century BC.
With the emergence of city-states, olive oil became an ingredient used primarily in cosmetic products used by urban noble women. In perfume production, olive oil or almond oil -which does not spoil and has the ability to lock in the scent- was used to mix scented plants/flowers, to make it easier to apply to the skin and to fix the scent. Towards the Roman period, new production techniques developed with the accumulation of knowledge would increase the supply of olive oil. With the development of technical knowledge and craftsmanship, glass vessels began to be used for the same purpose, along with earthenware.
From the linear B inscriptions found in the Crete excavations, it was understood that olive oil was used in the production of cosmetics, perfumes and ointments for therapeutic purposes. In an inscription found in the palace of Ancient Pylos, a coastal city of the Mycenaean period dating back to 1100 BC, it was understood what materials were used in the production of perfumes produced in the city, but no recipe could be found. The characteristic of the containers in which Mycenaean perfumes were placed was that they had "stirrup handles". At the end of the Mycenaean period, in 1000 BC, the Ancient Greek Civilization that began to rise in the Greek Peninsula would continue to use fragrant oils. In both of Homer's epics, there is a consensus that the oils used by the noble class were the best quality olive oils.
In Greek myths, the story of the chief goddess Hera rubbing her body with oil to seduce the chief god Zeus is as follows;
After entering a room whose doors were closed by a secret bolt that no other god could open, he covered his luminous wings,
Homer, Iliad XVIII, (Funeral ceremonies of Patroclus).
The culture of oiling the horses of heroes seems to have continued for a long time; it is known that in the Ottoman Empire, horses and camels were oiled in the stables belonging to the sultan and the sultan's palace, and the olive oil resources of Lesbos were allocated for this purpose.
It is believed that Homer, who recounted the adventures of noble male heroes on horses and pagan gods in anthropomorphic form, was not a single person. There is agreement that the oral storytelling tradition on the shores of the Aegean Sea was written down by more than one person in the mid-6th century BC.
With the emergence of city-states, olive oil became an ingredient used primarily in cosmetic products used by urban noble women. In perfume production, olive oil or almond oil -which does not spoil and has the ability to lock in the scent- was used to mix scented plants/flowers, to make it easier to apply to the skin and to fix the scent. Towards the Roman period, new production techniques developed with the accumulation of knowledge would increase the supply of olive oil. With the development of technical knowledge and craftsmanship, glass vessels began to be used for the same purpose, along with earthenware.
From the linear B inscriptions found in the Crete excavations, it was understood that olive oil was used in the production of cosmetics, perfumes and ointments for therapeutic purposes. In an inscription found in the palace of Ancient Pylos, a coastal city of the Mycenaean period dating back to 1100 BC, it was understood what materials were used in the production of perfumes produced in the city, but no recipe could be found. The characteristic of the containers in which Mycenaean perfumes were placed was that they had "stirrup handles". At the end of the Mycenaean period, in 1000 BC, the Ancient Greek Civilization that began to rise in the Greek Peninsula would continue to use fragrant oils. In both of Homer's epics, there is a consensus that the oils used by the noble class were the best quality olive oils.
In Greek myths, the story of the chief goddess Hera rubbing her body with oil to seduce the chief god Zeus is as follows;
After entering a room whose doors were closed by a secret bolt that no other god could open, he covered his luminous wings,
With a divine ointment, he wiped away all deformities from her beautiful, desirable body,
Then he was rubbed with a dark, fragrant, divine oil, the scent of which was prepared for him,
When he shook his bottle in Zeus' palace, the sky and earth were filled with his perfume.
Homer, Iliad II, (Hera's Preparations to Put Zeus to Sleep).
It is known that in those times, both men and women among the noble and wealthy would apply olive oil after washing in the bath to make their bodies soft. When Homer's stories are examined, it is understood that this use of olive oil was an indispensable part of the cleaning habit. In the same epics, it is seen that the tradition of applying scented creams and oil to the corpse after washing it before the burial ceremony was also a common practice.
One of the scents preferred by ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman societies is the 'Mendesian and Metopian Perfume'. It was obtained from the scent called "metopiyon" in Egypt. However, this perfume contains bitter almonds, oil of very unripe olives, cardamom, camel thorn, honey, wine, myrrh, the fruit of Mecca balsam, resin of chavşir grass and pine resin. It is thought that the city dwellers used to apply various scented oils such as olive oil and rosemary to their skin in order to prevent the scorching heat and scorching sun from drying out their skin and to protect themselves from skin diseases.
In the excavations in the necropolis areas of the Hellenistic period, alabastrons (a pear-shaped, footless and handleless perfume container with an oval base, usually made of alabaster) and small vases used for perfume were found among the grave gifts used for perfume. The remains of olive pits in the grave remains are associated with the sanctity of the olive.
Olive oil and essential oil products are still used in today's religious ceremonies. In Christian sacrament rituals, individuals are blessed with the oil blessed by senior priests, in European monarchs' coronation rituals, the king is blessed, and to a lesser extent, objects in the church are blessed.
Extra virgin olive oil is still an ingredient used in the production of contemporary cosmetic products.
In the most famous cuneiform literature, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the savage character of Enkidu, one of the main male characters, was civilized by a prostitute by rubbing him with oil. Although the word “messiah” is used today in the sense of “savior,” its etymological origin comes from “ointment” (oil to be applied to the body, to rub the body with oil). In the literature of the Jewish faith, when the first king of the Israelites, Shaul, ascended to the throne in 1035 BC, he was sanctified by rubbing olive oil on his forehead. The objects used in Jewish temples were sanctified by rubbing them with olive oil, and olive oil was added to the offerings brought to the temple for God.
In the literature of the Christian faith, Jesus' feet were rubbed with the hair of a woman or a courtesan named Mary, so the woman repented and became a Christian. The main material used in the production of "Chirisma, Holy Oil" in churches is pure olive oil, and in a ceremony performed by senior priests, essential oils are added to pure olive oil and stored in a storage container. It is used in sacraments performed in the church, in ceremonies performed for newly enthroned kings or in hierarchical rituals within the church and to bless objects in the church. The tradition of using holy oil with olive oil for blessing purposes continues today.
In ancient Egyptian and Greek civilizations, olive oil may have been used as a "binding agent" (holding color or dye molecules together) or as a protective layer in paints. However, there is little to no scientific evidence to support this view. The long drying time of olive oil (compared to linseed oil) must have been a practical disadvantage, so it is thought that it may have been used as a "furniture polish" or "wood protection" instead of artistic paint, but there is no scientific data to support this view. A mixture of olive oil and beeswax was found in residues on a 5th century BC pottery found in Athens. However, it is unclear whether this was for decorative purposes or as a protective layer.
Compiled by: Uğur Saraçoğlu, Physician, Olive and Olive Oil Producer ( ugisaracoglu@yahoo.com.tr )
Source:
1. Perfume in Ancient Times, Prepared by: Meryem Karakurt, Thesis Advisor: Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Üreten, TC Adnan Menderes University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of History, 2019.
2. Perfume and Perfume Containers in the Ancient Greek World, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cenker Atila, Perfume from Antiquity to the Present, Myrina Publications, 17, Archaeology and Art 2, 2021.
3. Olive and Olive Cultivation in Western Anatolia in Ancient Times; Gülhan Mumkaya, Master Thesis, Thesis Advisor: Prof. Dr. Özdemir Koçak, Konya, 2012.
4. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/cleopatras-ancient-perfume-recreated .
5. The Journey of Olive in the Mediterranean; Conference Proceedings, Dr. Alp Yücel Kaya, Ertekin Akpınar, 2016.
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastet .
7. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/643288 .
8. https://academic.oup.com/bjd/article/188/Supplement_4/ljad113.289/7207269?login=false#google_vignette .
9. Gold Cult Goods of Assyrian Merchants Mentioned in the Kültepe Tablets; Nurgül Yıldırım, Ankara University Journal of the Faculty of Language, History and Geography 53, 2 (2013) 327-343.
10. " ...He Will Sit With Them, Eat With Them, And Be Greased" ... us bat alaklat u passat istîsunu; İrfan Albayrak, Ankara University, Faculty of Language, History and Geography, Department of Sumerology, Archivum Anatolicum-Anatolian Archives (ArAn), //1, 2004, 1-21.
11. https://phys.org/news/2019-05-scent-cyprus-perfume.html .
12. https://exarc.net/issue-2020-2/ea/ancient-distillation-and-experimental-archaeology .
13. https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapputi-Belet-ekalle .
14. https://worldsensorium.com/tapputi-badakallim-the-oldest-perfumer-on-record/ .
15. https://cyberlipid.gerli.com/oxidation/oil-paint-history/ .
Homer, Iliad II, (Hera's Preparations to Put Zeus to Sleep).
It is known that in those times, both men and women among the noble and wealthy would apply olive oil after washing in the bath to make their bodies soft. When Homer's stories are examined, it is understood that this use of olive oil was an indispensable part of the cleaning habit. In the same epics, it is seen that the tradition of applying scented creams and oil to the corpse after washing it before the burial ceremony was also a common practice.
One of the scents preferred by ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman societies is the 'Mendesian and Metopian Perfume'. It was obtained from the scent called "metopiyon" in Egypt. However, this perfume contains bitter almonds, oil of very unripe olives, cardamom, camel thorn, honey, wine, myrrh, the fruit of Mecca balsam, resin of chavşir grass and pine resin. It is thought that the city dwellers used to apply various scented oils such as olive oil and rosemary to their skin in order to prevent the scorching heat and scorching sun from drying out their skin and to protect themselves from skin diseases.
In the excavations in the necropolis areas of the Hellenistic period, alabastrons (a pear-shaped, footless and handleless perfume container with an oval base, usually made of alabaster) and small vases used for perfume were found among the grave gifts used for perfume. The remains of olive pits in the grave remains are associated with the sanctity of the olive.
Olive oil and essential oil products are still used in today's religious ceremonies. In Christian sacrament rituals, individuals are blessed with the oil blessed by senior priests, in European monarchs' coronation rituals, the king is blessed, and to a lesser extent, objects in the church are blessed.
Extra virgin olive oil is still an ingredient used in the production of contemporary cosmetic products.
In the most famous cuneiform literature, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the savage character of Enkidu, one of the main male characters, was civilized by a prostitute by rubbing him with oil. Although the word “messiah” is used today in the sense of “savior,” its etymological origin comes from “ointment” (oil to be applied to the body, to rub the body with oil). In the literature of the Jewish faith, when the first king of the Israelites, Shaul, ascended to the throne in 1035 BC, he was sanctified by rubbing olive oil on his forehead. The objects used in Jewish temples were sanctified by rubbing them with olive oil, and olive oil was added to the offerings brought to the temple for God.
In the literature of the Christian faith, Jesus' feet were rubbed with the hair of a woman or a courtesan named Mary, so the woman repented and became a Christian. The main material used in the production of "Chirisma, Holy Oil" in churches is pure olive oil, and in a ceremony performed by senior priests, essential oils are added to pure olive oil and stored in a storage container. It is used in sacraments performed in the church, in ceremonies performed for newly enthroned kings or in hierarchical rituals within the church and to bless objects in the church. The tradition of using holy oil with olive oil for blessing purposes continues today.
In ancient Egyptian and Greek civilizations, olive oil may have been used as a "binding agent" (holding color or dye molecules together) or as a protective layer in paints. However, there is little to no scientific evidence to support this view. The long drying time of olive oil (compared to linseed oil) must have been a practical disadvantage, so it is thought that it may have been used as a "furniture polish" or "wood protection" instead of artistic paint, but there is no scientific data to support this view. A mixture of olive oil and beeswax was found in residues on a 5th century BC pottery found in Athens. However, it is unclear whether this was for decorative purposes or as a protective layer.
Compiled by: Uğur Saraçoğlu, Physician, Olive and Olive Oil Producer ( ugisaracoglu@yahoo.com.tr )
Source:
1. Perfume in Ancient Times, Prepared by: Meryem Karakurt, Thesis Advisor: Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Üreten, TC Adnan Menderes University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of History, 2019.
2. Perfume and Perfume Containers in the Ancient Greek World, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cenker Atila, Perfume from Antiquity to the Present, Myrina Publications, 17, Archaeology and Art 2, 2021.
3. Olive and Olive Cultivation in Western Anatolia in Ancient Times; Gülhan Mumkaya, Master Thesis, Thesis Advisor: Prof. Dr. Özdemir Koçak, Konya, 2012.
4. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/cleopatras-ancient-perfume-recreated .
5. The Journey of Olive in the Mediterranean; Conference Proceedings, Dr. Alp Yücel Kaya, Ertekin Akpınar, 2016.
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastet .
7. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/643288 .
8. https://academic.oup.com/bjd/article/188/Supplement_4/ljad113.289/7207269?login=false#google_vignette .
9. Gold Cult Goods of Assyrian Merchants Mentioned in the Kültepe Tablets; Nurgül Yıldırım, Ankara University Journal of the Faculty of Language, History and Geography 53, 2 (2013) 327-343.
10. " ...He Will Sit With Them, Eat With Them, And Be Greased" ... us bat alaklat u passat istîsunu; İrfan Albayrak, Ankara University, Faculty of Language, History and Geography, Department of Sumerology, Archivum Anatolicum-Anatolian Archives (ArAn), //1, 2004, 1-21.
11. https://phys.org/news/2019-05-scent-cyprus-perfume.html .
12. https://exarc.net/issue-2020-2/ea/ancient-distillation-and-experimental-archaeology .
13. https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapputi-Belet-ekalle .
14. https://worldsensorium.com/tapputi-badakallim-the-oldest-perfumer-on-record/ .
15. https://cyberlipid.gerli.com/oxidation/oil-paint-history/ .